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Item Open Access Barriers and enablers to uptake of agroecological and regenerative farming practices, and stakeholder views about ‘living labs’(DEFRA, 2023-02-20) Hurley, Paul D.; Rose, David Christian; Burgess, Paul J.; Staley, Joanna T.This report forms the second component of a Defra-sponsored research project entitled “Evaluating the productivity, environmental sustainability and wider impacts of agroecological compared to conventional farming systems”. The first component comprised a rapid evidence review of regenerative/agroecological farming systems. This second component describes and discusses the results of a survey to explore i) farmer and stakeholder definitions of agroecological and regenerative farming, ii) the barriers to the adoption of agroecological and regenerative farming, and iii) farmer and stakeholder views towards the concept of ‘living labs’ as a way to share research and learnings about agroecological/regenerative farming (Figure 1).Item Open Access CCQM-K90, formaldehyde in nitrogen, 2 μmol mol− 1 Final report(IOP, 2017-09-26) Viallon, Joële; Flores, Edgar; Idrees, Faraz; Moussay, Philippe; Wielgosz, Robert Ian; Kim, D.; Kim, Y. D.; Lee, S.; Persijn, S.; Konopelko, L. A.; Kustikov, Y. A.; Malginov, A. V.; Chubchenko, I. K.; Klimov, A. Y.; Efremova, O. V.; Zhou, Z.; Possolo, A.; Shimosaka, T.; Brewer, P.; Macé, T.; Ferracci, Valerio; Brown, Richard J. C.; Aoki, AokiThe CCQM-K90 comparison is designed to evaluate the level of comparability of national metrology institutes (NMI) or designated institutes (DI) measurement capabilities for formaldehyde in nitrogen at a nominal mole fraction of 2 μmol mol−1. The comparison was organised by the BIPM using a suite of gas mixtures prepared by a producer of specialty calibration gases. The BIPM assigned the formaldehyde mole fraction in the mixtures by comparison with primary mixtures generated dynamically by permeation coupled with continuous weighing in a magnetic suspension balance. The BIPM developed two dynamic sources of formaldehyde in nitrogen that provide two independent values of the formaldehyde mole fraction: the first one based on diffusion of trioxane followed by thermal conversion to formaldehyde, the second one based on permeation of formaldehyde from paraformaldehyde contained in a permeation tube. Two independent analytical methods, based on cavity ring down spectroscopy (CRDS) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used for the assignment procedure. Each participating institute was provided with one transfer standard and value assigned the formaldehyde mole fraction in the standard based on its own measurement capabilities. The stability of the formaldehyde mole fraction in transfer standards was deduced from repeated measurements performed at the BIPM before and after measurements performed at participating institutes. In addition, 5 control standards were kept at the BIPM for regular measurements during the course of the comparison. Temporal trends that approximately describe the linear decrease of the amount-of-substance fraction of formaldehyde in nitrogen in the transfer standards over time were estimated by two different mathematical treatments, the outcomes of which were proposed to participants. The two treatments also differed in the way measurement uncertainties arising from measurements performed at the BIPM were propagated to the uncertainty of the trend parameters, as well as how the dispersion of the dates when measurements were made by the participants was taken into account. Upon decision of the participants, the Key Comparison Reference Values were assigned by the BIPM using the largest uncertainty for measurements performed at the BIPM, linear regression without weight to calculate the trend parameters, and not taking into account the dispersion of dates for measurements made by the participant. Each transfer standard was assigned its own reference value and associated expanded uncertainty. An expression for the degree of equivalence between each participating institute and the KCRV was calculated from the comparison results and measurement uncertainties submitted by participating laboratories. Results of the alternative mathematical treatment are presented in annex of this report.Item Open Access Characterising current agroecological and regenerative farming research capability and infrastructure, and examining the case for a Living Lab network(DEFRA, 2023-12-31) Staley, Joanna T.; McCracken, Morag E.; Redhead, John R.; Hurley, Paul D.; Rose, David ChristianAgriculture is a major cause of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, biodiversity loss, and pollution. Agroecological and regenerative farming have been advocated as alternative approaches that may have fewer negative (or even net positive) environmental impacts than conventional agriculture at farm- and landscape-scales, leading to considerable interest in these approaches (Newton et al. 2020; Bohan et al. 2022; Prost et al. 2023). This report forms the third part of a Defra-funded project Evaluating the productivity, environmental sustainability and wider impacts of agroecological and regenerative farming systems compared to conventional systems. The first part of this project was a rapid evidence review of agroecological and regenerative farming systems and their impacts (Burgess et al. 2023), and the second reported interview findings to examine farmer and stakeholder perspectives on barriers and enablers in agroecological and regenerative farming (Hurley et al. 2023). This third part of the project characterised the current research capability in agroecology and regenerative farming, and explored the potential role of a new ‘living lab’ trial network.Item Open Access The EPSRC's responsible innovation framework: to what extent does it influence research practice?(2023-02-22) Rose, David Christian; Shortland, Faye; Smith, Rachel; Schillings, JulietteThe world is on the cusp of a technology revolution in which radical technologies (e.g. AI, robotics, drones) offer the potential to transform society. The UK Government has committed to driving this through their Industrial Strategy, much of it distributed through UK Research Councils, to achieve aims such as Transforming Food Production and Clean Growth. It has been argued that responsible innovation principles - anticipation, inclusion, reflexivity, and responsiveness - should be embedded within this technology revolution so that the benefits, opportunities, and risks are properly considered. To this end, funders such as EPSRC are committed to responsible innovation. Yet, there has been little empirical work which investigates whether responsible innovation training actually changes design practices. Through surveys and interviews of EPSRC-funded researchers and PhD students, this pilot project investigates the impact of their responsible innovation framework (AREA) on research in practice.Item Open Access Evaluating agroecological farming practices(DEFRA, 2023-02-20) Burgess, Paul J.; Redhead, John; Girkin, Nicholas T.; Deeks, Lynda K.; Harris, Jim A.; Staley, Joanna T.There are a range of definitions for agroecologically-related farming systems and practices. In brief, organic farming places strong restrictions on inputs, agroecological analyses often focus on principles, and regenerative farming typically emphasises the enhancement of soil health and the diversity of agricultural and wild species at a farm-scale. Perhaps surprisingly the role of agroecological systems in reducing net greenhouse gas emissions from food and farming is implicit rather than explicit. Despite some literature contrasting agroecological and technical approaches, many authors indicate that the desirability of farming practices should be determined by their impact at the appropriate scale. Sustainable intensification has been defined as maintaining or enhancing agricultural production while enhancing or maintaining the delivery of other ecosystem services. Approaches such as the Global Farm Metric and LEAF Marque Certification can support the integrated assessment of 12 groupings of attributes at a farm-scale covering inputs and outputs, and environmental and social impacts. In this report we reviewed the following 16 practices: crop rotations, conservation agriculture, cover crops, organic crop production, integrated pest management, the integration of livestock to crop systems, the integration of crops to livestock systems, field margin practices, pasture-fed livestock systems, multi-paddock grazing, organic livestock systems, tree crops, tree-intercropping, multistrata agroforestry and permaculture, silvopasture, and rewilding.Item Open Access An example application of the CEN Water quality — Guidance standard for assessing the hydromorphological features of rivers to the River Frome, Dorset, Southern England(UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, 2020-10-01) Gurnell, Angela M.; Grabowski, Robert C.This report documents a comprehensive application of the framework proposed in CEN Standard CEN/ TC 230/ WG 25/ EN14614 to the River Frome, Dorset, Southern England. Therefore, this report needs to be read with reference to that Standard. The framework was first developed in REFORM, a European Union Framework 7 project (Grant Agreement 282656), established to improve the success of hydromorphological restoration. The Standard determines the natural hydromorphological condition of rivers for many applications. It is appropriate for long-term, catchment-scale management, e.g. river basin planning and implementation. It is also able to support assessments for site-scale, project delivery, e.g. flood management schemes, channel maintenance and channel restoration. The hierarchical and multiscale nature of the analysis illustrated in this report provides causative links between catchment processes and local scale hydromorphological conditions; for example, how catchment scale issues influence fine sediment erosion, transfer and deposition. In this way it can facilitate the application of a DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact, Response) model of management intervention, illustrate causes and consequences, and help target sustainable management solutions.Item Open Access Forward-looking climatic scenarios of UK clay-related subsidence risk(Cranfield University, 2015-06-01) Hallett, Stephen H.; Farewell, Timothy; Pritchard, Oliver G.An award drawing upon the Cranfield University EPSRC-funded Impact Acceleration Account (IAA) was awarded to staff in the University’s School of Energy, Environment and Agrifood (SEEA) (Hallett, Farewell, Pritchard), to undertake processing of UKCP09 climate projections for the United Kingdom (UK) in support of assessments of future geohazards and societal impact. This report identifies the technical outcomes from this work and presents the resultant climate change cartography and related data. Spatially coherent national data ensembles are generated for the UKCP09 ‘Baseline’ period, for ‘2030’ and ‘2050’. Maps of Potential Soil Moisture Deficit (PSMD) are produced for each to exemplify its application. The findings suggest that the extremes in PSMD observed at the current time in the UK are likely to become the norm by 2030 and 2050. The data produced has a range of potential applications, from geohazard assessments to the built environment and infrastructure, to agri-informatic modelling of agricultural crops, as well as modelling for 'future-proofing' of buildings against predicted climate change by example. It is anticipated that the datasets presented from this IAA will be of benefit to a range of end-user stakeholders. One example is in the insurance, reinsurance and water utility sectors, where modelling of future impacts of climate change are conducted. Recent research has suggested this data will likely prove of use for County Councils and municipal authorities, for example in the allocation of targeted road maintenance funding, particularly on local-authority owned highways. Rail network operators, having faced a number of embankment failures, and track undulations as a result of shrink/swell activity are also likely to benefit from this research. The soil moisture deficit scenarios produced could help such organisations better manage geotechnical assets and vegetation management of susceptible slopes and soils. Cranfield’s School of Energy, Environment and Agrifood (SEEA) manage and operate the Natural Perils Directory (NPD). The NPD is a widely used geohazard thematic dataset portraying vulnerabilities arising from soil-climate responses to long-term climate change. NPD will incorporate directly the datasets produced and described here.Item Open Access A hierarchical multi-scale framework and indicators of hydromorphological processes and forms(European Commission within the 7th Framework Programme, 2014-10-30) Gurnell, Angela M.; Bussettini, M.; Camenen, B.; González Del Tánago, M.; Grabowski, Robert C.; Hendriks, D.; Henshaw, A.; Latapie, A.; Rinaldi, M.; Surian, N.Background and Introduction to Deliverable 2.1. Work Package 2 of REFORM focuses on hydromorphological and ecological processes and interactions within river systems with a particular emphasis on naturally functioning systems. It provides a context for research on the impacts of hydromorphological changes in Work Package 3 and for assessments of the effects of river restoration in Work Package 4. Deliverable 2.1 of Work Package 2 proposes a hierarchical framework to support river managers in exploring the causes of hydromorphological management problems and devising sustainable solutions. The deliverable has four parts. Part 1 (this volume) provides a full description of the hierarchical framework and describes ways in which each element of it can be applied to European rivers and their catchments. Part 2 includes thematic annexes which provide more detailed information on some specific aspects of the framework described in Part 1. Part 3 includes catchment case studies which present the application of the entire framework described in Part 1 to a set of European catchments located in different biogeographical zones. Part 4 includes catchment case studies which present a partial application of the framework described in Part 1 to a further set of European catchments.Item Open Access Indicators of soil quality - Physical properties (SP1611). Final report to Defra(Defra, 2012-09-30) Rickson, R. Jane; Deeks, Lynda K.; Corstanje, Ronald; Newell-Price, Paul; Kibblewhite, Mark G.; Chambers, B.; Bellamy, Patricia; Holman, Ian P.; James, I. T.; Jones, Robert; Kechavarsi, C.; Mouazen, Abdul; Ritz, K.; Waine, TobyThe condition of soil determines its ability to carry out diverse and essential functions that support human health and wellbeing. These functions (or ecosystem goods and services) include producing food, storing water, carbon and nutrients, protecting our buried cultural heritage and providing a habitat for flora and fauna. Therefore, it is important to know the condition or quality of soil and how this changes over space and time in response to natural factors (such as changing weather patterns) or to land management practices. Meaningful soil quality indicators (SQIs), based on physical, biological or chemical soil properties are needed for the successful implementation of a soil monitoring programme in England and Wales. Soil monitoring can provide decision makers with important data to target, implement and evaluate policies aimed at safeguarding UK soil resources. Indeed, the absence of agreed and well-defined SQIs is likely to be a barrier to the development of soil protection policy and its subsequent implementation. This project assessed whether physical soil properties can be used to indicate the quality of soil in terms of its capacity to deliver ecosystem goods and services. The 22 direct (e.g. bulk density) and 4 indirect (e.g. catchment hydrograph) physical SQIs defined by Loveland and Thompson (2002) and subsequently evaluated by Merrington et al. (2006), were re-visited in the light of new scientific evidence, recent policy drivers and developments in sampling techniques and monitoring methodologies (Work Package 1). The culmination of these efforts resulted in 38 direct and 4 indirect soil physical properties being identified as potential SQIs. Based on the gathered evidence, a ‘logical sieve’ was used to assess the relative strengths, weaknesses and suitability of each potential physical SQI for national scale soil monitoring. Each soil physical property was scored in terms of: soil function – does the candidate SQI reflect all soil function(s)? land use - does the candidate SQI apply to all land uses found nationally? soil degradation - can the candidate SQI express soil degradation processes? does the candidate SQI meet the challenge criteria used by Merrington et al. (2006)?This approach enabled a consistent synthesis of available information and the semi-objective, semi-quantitative and transparent assessment of indicators against a series of scientific and technical criteria (Ritz et al., 2009; Black et al., 2008). The logical sieve was shown to be a flexible decision-support tool to assist a range of stakeholders with different agenda in formulating a prioritised list of potential physical SQIs. This was explored further by members of the soil science and soils policy community at a project workshop. By emphasising the current key policy-related soil functions (i.e. provisioning and regulating), the logical sieve was used to generate scores which were then ranked to identify the most qualified SQIs. The process selected 18 candidate physical SQIs. This list was further filtered to move from the ‘narrative’ to a more ‘numerical’ approach, in order to test the robustness of the candidate SQIs through statistical analysis and modelling (Work Package 2). The remaining 7 physical SQIs were: depth of soil; soil water retention characteristics; packing density; visual soil assessment / evaluation; rate of erosion; sealing; and aggregate stability. For these SQIs to be included in a robust national soil monitoring programme, we investigated the uncertainty in their measurement; the spatial and temporal variability in the indicator as given by observed distributions; and the expected rate of change in the indicator. Whilst a baseline is needed (i.e. the current state of soil), it is the rate of change in soil properties and the implications of that change in terms of soil processes and functioning that are key to effective soil monitoring. Where empirical evidence was available, power analysis was used to understand the variability of indicators as given by the observed distributions. This process determines the ability to detect a particular change in the SQI at a particular confidence level, given the ‘noise’ or variability in the data (i.e. a particular power to detect a change of ‘X’ at a confidence level of ‘Y%’ would require ‘N’ samples). However, the evidence base for analysing the candidate SQIs is poor: data are limited in spatial and temporal extent for England and Wales, in terms of a) the degree (magnitude) of change in the SQI which significantly affects soil processes and functions (i.e. ‘meaningful change’), and b) the change in the SQI that is detectable (i.e. what sample size is needed to detect the meaningful signal from the variability or noise in the signal). This constrains the design and implementation of a scientifically and statistically rigorous and reliable soil monitoring programme. Evidence that is available suggests that what constitutes meaningful change will depend on soil type, current soil state, land use and the soil function under consideration. However, when we tested this by analysing detectable changes in packing density and soil depth (because data were available for these SQIs) over different land covers and soil types, no relationships were found. Schipper and Sparling (2000) identify the challenge: “a standardised methodology may not be appropriate to apply across contrasting soils and land uses. However, it is not practical to optimise sampling and analytical techniques for each soil and land use for extensive sampling on a national scale”. Despite the paucity in data, all seven SQIs have direct relevance to current and likely future soil and environmental policy, because they can be related (qualitatively) to soil processes, soil functions and delivery of ecosystem goods and services. Even so, meaningful and detectable changes in physical SQIs may be out of time with any soil policy change and it is not usually possible to link particular changes in SQIs to particular policy activities. This presents challenges in ascertaining trends that can feed into policy development or be used to gauge the effectiveness of soil protection policies (Work Package 3). Of the seven candidate physical SQIs identified, soil depth and surface sealing are regarded by many as indicators of soil quantity rather than quality. Visual soil evaluation is currently not suited to soil monitoring in the strictest sense, as its semi-qualitative basis cannot be analysed statistically. Also, few data exist on how visual evaluation scores relate to soil functions. However, some studies have begun to investigate how VSE might be moved to a more quantified scale and the method has some potential as a low cost field technique to assess soil condition. Packing density requires data on bulk density and clay content, both of which are highly variable, so compounding the error term associated with this physical SQI. More evidence is needed to show how ‘meaningful’ change in aggregate stability affects soil processes and thus soil functions (for example, using the limited data available, an equivocal relationship was found with water regulation / runoff generation). The analysis of available data has given promising results regarding the prediction of soil water retention characteristics and packing density from relatively easy to measure soil properties (bulk density, texture and organic C) using pedotransfer functions. Expanding the evidence base is possible with the development of rapid, cost-effective techniques such as NIR sensors to measure soil properties. Defra project SP1303 (Brazier et al., 2012) used power analyses to estimate the number of monitoring locations required to detect a statistically significant change in soil erosion rate on cultivated land. However, what constitutes a meaningful change in erosion rates still requires data on the impacts of erosion on soil functions. Priority cannot be given amongst the seven SQIs, because the evidence base for each varies in its robustness and extent. Lack of data (including uncertainty in measurement and variability in observed distributions) applies to individual SQIs; attempts at integrating more than one SQI (including physical, biological and chemical SQIs) to improve associations between soil properties and processes / functions are only likely to propagate errors. Whether existing monitoring programmes can be adapted to incorporate additional measurement of physical SQIs was explored. We considered options where one or more of the candidate physical SQIs might be implemented into soil monitoring programmes (e.g. as a new national monitoring scheme; as part of the Countryside Survey; and as part of the National Soil Inventory). The challenge is to decide whether carrying out soil monitoring that is not statistically robust is still valuable in answering questions regarding current and future soil quality. The relationship between physical (and other) SQIs, soil processes and soil functions is complex, as is how this influences ecosystem services’ delivery. Important gaps remain in even the realisation of a conceptual model for these inter-relationships, let alone their quantification. There is also a question of whether individual quantitative SQIs can be related to ecosystem services, given the number of variables.Item Open Access Land Contamination and Brownfield Management Policy Development in China: Learning from the UK Experience(2016-03) Coulon, Frederic; Bardos, Paul; Harries, Nicola; Canning, Kate; Chen, Mengfang; Hu, Qing; Jones, Kevin Christopher; Li, Fasheng; Li, Hong; Gomes, Diogo; Liu, Ming; Liu, Rongxia; Yang, XiaOver the last 30 years, China’s fast urbanisation along with huge expansion of its manufacturing industry has led to the emergence of significant soil and water contamination problems across China. In the meantime, a number of policies and regulatory agencies for the protection of the environment have been implemented to stop deliberate pollution and more recently to address pollution prevention at source on a wider scale. Soil protection and management have been featured in policy discussions since the late 1950s in China. However, the topic has recently been of greatly expanded interest in the development of emerging policies, particularly with regards to the role of soil as a resource, independent of the functions that it carries out. Soil provides multiple important functions such as provision of food and raw materials, a platform for urban development and human wellbeing and a filtering and transforming media for water, nutrients, and carbon. However as pointed out by Yuan Si, Deputy Director of the Environmental Protection and Resources Conservation Committee of the National People Congress (China Daily, 11 March 2016), the move toward integrated management that has been driving policies for air and water has proven to be a challenge for soil management, mainly due to the multiple functions that soils provide. This is also true internationally and explained by several drivers for soil protection including among others soil contamination, construction, agriculture and amenity value.Item Open Access The Potential Contribution of Agroforestry to Net Zero Objectives. Report for the Woodland Trust(Cranfield University, 2022-11-01) Burgess, Paul; Graves, AnilThe aim of this report, for the Woodland Trust, is to examine the potential contribution of agroforestry to net zero objectives in the United Kingdom over the next 40-50 years, with a focus on 2050. As part of the drive to net zero greenhouse gas emissions, the UK Government and the Committee for Climate Change has proposed an expansion in tree cover of 30-70,000 hectares a year across the UK. These are above any level of tree planting seen in the UK in recent years and the majority of such planting will need to occur on farmland. Agroforestry, the integration of trees on farms, whilst sustaining agricultural production, is one approach to increase tree cover whilst supporting other objectives such as the maintenance of livelihoods, provision of wildlife habitats, and reduced nutrient pollution. The report draws on and synthesises previously published literature in journal papers, academic reports, and on-going research.Item Open Access Promoting Sino-UK Collaboration on Developing Low Carbon and Sustainable Methodologies for Brownfields and Marginal Land Re-use in China(2017-01) Coulon, Frederic; Campo Moreno, Pablo; Jiang, Ying; Longhurst, Phil; Bardos, Paul; Li, Xiaonuo; Harries, Nicola; Jones, Kevin; Li, Hong; Li, Fasheng; Cao, Yunzhe; Hu, Qing; Gao, Jingyang; Chen, Mengfang; Zhu, Yong-Guan; Cai, ChaoRapid urbanisation and changes in land use resulting from industrial change has left a legacy of vast polluted industrial and commercial areas (also called brownfields) and marginal land areas. Recent evidence from the UK, EU and USA indicate that these land areas may have considerable potential for renewables production, for example from solar, wind or biomass. In parallel there are opportunities for carbon storage in rehabilitated soil, as well as substitution by the production of renewables. The UK is also leading the understanding in the wider parallel benefits that can be achieved from ecosystem services and public health benefits from improved provision of green space. These multiple services can be provided together, in synergy, from soft re-uses of post-industrial sites, and in this way the post-industrial regeneration areas in China should be seen as a major opportunity for new enterprise, society and the wider environment. The improving bankability of renewable energy projects, and the possibility of creating a voluntary carbon offset business, means that revenue streams may be sufficient to pay for ongoing land management over time as a profit generating activity. In terms of fastest benefit to UK PLC and China, the likelihood is that combination of renewable energies with “dual use” for habitat will provide both more readily commercial brownfield re-use opportunities for cities in China in the short term, and also create better carbon management opportunities, as well as a variety of wider sustainability benefits. Thus this type of re-uses will create a platform for rapid commercial exchange and development between Chinese and UK companies. Considering that China is preparing an action plan for managing soil pollution and remediation across the country estimated to be RMB 7tn which is equivalent to one-third of the national exchange reserves, this report on developing low carbon and sustainable methodologies for brownfields and marginal land re-use in China provides timely information that will support the decision making for sustainable remediation opportunities in China. The report is intended to serve as a tool and resource guide to stakeholders involved in land remediation willing to engage in sustainable remediation implementation for renewable energy and carbon management applications. It is intended to inform remediation stakeholders unfamiliar with sustainable remediation about the concept, practices, and available resources. The report capitalises on UK leadership positions on the sustainable rehabilitation of brownfields land (SURF-UK), the soft re-use of brownfields (e.g. for energy or amenity rather than buildings); effective end-use directed risk management for contaminated land, and sustainable remediation.Item Open Access Report of Committee III.2: fatigue and fracture(Elsevier, 2003-12-31) Brennan, Feargal P.COMMITTEE MANDATE Concern for crack initiation and growth under cyclic loading as well as unstable crack propagation and tearing in ship and offshore structures. Due attention shall be paid to practical application and statistical description of fracture control methods in design, fabrication and service. Consideration is to be given to the suitability and uncertainty of physical models. The work shall be coordinated with that of Committee V.2.