CERES :: Browsing by Author "Whelan, Michael J."

Browsing by Author "Whelan, Michael J."

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Open Access
An assessment of the risk to surface water ecosystems of groundwater P in the UK and Ireland
(Elsevier , 2010-03-15T00:00:00Z) Holman, Ian P.; Howden, Nicholas J. K.; Bellamy, Patricia H.; Willby, N.; Whelan, Michael J.; Rivas Casado, Monica
A good quantitative understanding of phosphorus (P) delivery is essential in the design of management strategies to prevent eutrophication of terrestrial freshwaters. Most research to date has focussed on surface and near-surface hydrological pathways, under the common assumption that little P leaches to groundwater. Here we present an analysis of national patterns of groundwater phosphate concentrations in England and Wales, Scotland, and the Republic of Ireland, which shows that many groundwater bodies have median P concentrations above ecologically significant thresholds for freshwaters. The potential risk to receptor ecosystems of high observed groundwater P concentrations will depend on (1) whether the observed groundwater P concentrations are above the natural background; (2) the influence of local hydrogeological settings (pathways) on the likelihood of significant P transfers to the receptor; (3) the sensitivity of the receptor to P; and, (4) the relative magnitude of P transfers from groundwater compared to other P sources. Our research suggests that, although there is often a high degree of uncertainty in many of these factors, groundwater has the potential to trigger and/or maintain eutrophication under certain scenarios: the assumption of groundwater contribution to river flows as a ubiquitous source of dilution for P-rich surface runoff must therefore be questioned. Given the regulatory importance of P concentrations in triggering ecological quality thresholds, there is an urgent need for detailed monitoring and research to characterise the extent and magnitude of different groundwater P sources, the likelihood for P transformation and/or storage along aquifer- hyporheic zone flow paths and to identify the subsequent risk to receptor ecosystems. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Open Access
Continuous-flow laboratory simulation of stream water quality changes downstream of an untreated wastewater discharge.
(Elsevier , 2009-04-01T00:00:00Z) Finnegan, Chris J.; van Egmond, Roger A.; Price, Oliver R.; Whelan, Michael J.
In regions of the world with poor provision of wastewater treatment, raw sewage is often discharged directly into surface waters. This paper describes an experimental evaluation of the fate of two organic chemicals under these conditions using an artificial channel cascade fed with a mix of settled sewage and river water at its upstream end and operated under continuous steady-state conditions. The experiments underpin an environmental risk assessment methodology based on the idea of an “impact zone” (IZ) – the zone downstream of wastewater emission in which water quality is severely impaired by high concentrations of unionised ammonia, nitrite and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Radiolabelled dodecane-6-benzene sulphonate (DOBS) and aniline hydrochloride were used as the model chemical and reference compound respectively. Rapid changes in 14C counts were observed with flow-time for both these materials. These changes were most likely to be due to complete mineralisation. A dissipation half-life of approximately 7.1 h was observed for the 14C label with DOBS. The end of the IZ was defined as the point at which the concentration of both unionised ammonia and nitrite fell below their respective predicted no-effect concentrations for salmonids. At these points in the cascade, approximately 83 and 90% of the initial concentration of 14C had been removed from the water column, respectively. A simple model of mineral nitrogen transformations based on Michaelis–Menten kinetics was fitted to observed concentrations of NH4, NO2 and NO3. The cascade is intended to provide a confirmatory methodology for assessing the ecological risks of chemicals under direct discharge con
Open Access
Development and application of a catchment scale pesticide fate and transport model for use in drinking water risk assessment
(Elsevier, 2016-05-03) Pullan, S. P.; Whelan, Michael J.; Rettino, Jodie; Filby, Katherine; Eyre, S.; Holman, Ian P.
This paper describes the development and application of IMPT (Integrated Model for Pesticide Transport), a parameter-efficient tool for predicting diffuse-source pesticide concentrations in surface waters used for drinking water supply. The model was applied to a small UK headwater catchment with high frequency (8 h) pesticide monitoring data and to five larger catchments (479–1653 km2) with sampling approximately every 14 days. Model performance was good for predictions of both flow (Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency generally > 0.59 and PBIAS < 10%) and pesticide concentrations, although low sampling frequency in the larger catchments is likely to mask the true episodic nature of exposure. The computational efficiency of the model, along with the fact that most of its parameters can be derived from existing national soil property data mean that it can be used to rapidly predict pesticide exposure in multiple surface water resources to support operational and strategic risk assessments.
Open Access
Dynamic multi-phase partitioning of decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) in river water
(Elsevier , 2010-12-31T00:00:00Z) Whelan, Michael J.; van Egmond, Roger A.; Gore, David; Sanders, David A.
The behaviour of decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) in river water was evaluated by measuring concentration changes in open beakers. Effective values for the partition coefficient between organic carbon and water (K) were derived by least-squares optimisation of a dynamic model which accounted for partitioning between the sorbed and dissolved phases of D5, and for losses via volatilisation and hydrolysis. Partial mass transfer coefficients for volatilisation were derived from model fits to controls containing deionised water. Effective values of log (K) were between 5.8 and 6.33 (mean 6.16). These figures are higher than some other experimentally-derived values but much lower than those estimated from the octanol: water partition coefficient using single-parameter linear free energy relationships (LFERs). A poly-parameter LFER gave a predicted log (K) of 5.5. Differences in partitioning are believed to be due to the nature of the organic matter present. The new value for effective K was employed in a simple model of D5 behaviour in rivers to ascertain the extent to which a higher affinity for organic carbon would depress volatility. The results suggest that despite the revised K value, volatilisation of D5 remains a significant removal mechanism in surface waters. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd
Open Access
The fate and effects of triclosan in soils amended with biosolids
(Cranfield University, 2012-09) Butler, Emma; Whelan, Michael J.; Sakrabani, Ruben
Many hydrophobic pollutants can be emitted to agricultural soils if sewage sludge is used as a fertiliser. The fate and effects of pollutants in such receiving environments are relatively poorly understood compared with our knowledge of chemical behaviour and impact in surface waters. One chemical of particular concern is triclosan because it has antimicrobial properties which could affect important soil functions. Triclosan is hydrophobic, which means it will sorb appreciably to organic solids and is not readily biodegradable. It is also used extensively in personal care products. These factors have prompted considerable attention in the literature with respect to its environmental profile. In recent years, this attention has shifted away from the water environment to terrestrial systems. This thesis bridges some of the knowledge gaps considering the fate (specifically mineralisation, primary degradation and the formation of bound residues) and the effects (to the soil function and phenotype) of triclosan in soils amended with biosolids. Cont/d.
Open Access
Identifying adaptation options and constraints: the role of agronomist knowledge in catchment management strategy
(Springer Science Business Media, 2014-01-31T00:00:00Z) Dolan, Tom; Howsam, Peter; Parsons, David J.; Whelan, Michael J.; Varga, Liz
Water suppliers in parts of Europe currently face occasional Drinking Water Directive compliance challenges for a number of pesticide active substances including metal- dehyde, clopyralid and propyzamide. Water Framework Directive (WFD) Article 7 promotes a prevention-led (catchment management) approach to such issues. At the same time, European pesticide legislation is driving reduced active substance availability. In this context, embedding agronomic drivers of pesticide use into catchment management and regulatory decision making processes can help to ensure that water quality problems are addressed at source without imposition of disproportionate cost on either agriculture or potable water suppliers. In this study agronomist knowledge, perception and expectations of current and possible future pesticide use was assessed and the significance of this knowledge to other stakeholders involved with pesticide catchment management was evaluated. This was then used to provide insight into the possible impacts of active substance restrictions and associated adaptation options. For many arable crops, further restrictions on the range of pesticides available may cause increased use of alternatives (with potential for "pollution swapping"). However, in many cases alternatives are not available, too costly or lack a proven track record and other adaptation options may be selected which catchment managers need to be able to anticipate.
Open Access
Modeling soil bulk density at the landscape scale and its contributions to C stock uncertainty
(Copernicus Publications, 2012-12-19T00:00:00Z) Taalab, Khaled Paul; Corstanje, Ronald; Creamer, Rachel E.; Whelan, Michael J.
Soil bulk density (Db) is a major contributor to uncertainties in landscape-scale carbon and nutrient stock estimation. However, it is time consuming to measure and is, therefore, frequently predicted using surrogate variables, such as soil texture. Using this approach is of limited value for estimating landscape scale inventories, as its accuracy beyond the sampling point at which texture is measured becomes highly uncertain. In this paper, we explore the ability of soil landscape models to predict soil Db using a suite of landscape attributes and derivatives for both topsoil and subsoil. The models were constructed using random forests and artificial neural networks. Using these statistical methods, we have produced a spatially distributed prediction of Db on a 100m × 100m grid which was shown to significantly improve topsoil carbon stock estimation. In comparison to using mean values from point measurements, the error associated with predictions was over three times lower using the gridded prediction. Within our study area of the Midlands, UK, we found that the gridded prediction of Db produced a stock inventory of nearly 8 million tonnes of carbon less than the mean method. Furthermore, the gridded approach was particularly useful in improving organic carbon (OC) stock estimation for fine-scale landscape units at which many landscape-atmosphere interaction models operate.
Open Access
Modelling of pesticide exposure in ground and surface waters used for public water supply
(Cranfield University, 2014-01) Pullan, Stephanie; Holman, Ian P.; Whelan, Michael J.
Diffuse transfers of pesticides from agricultural land to ground and surface waters can lead to significant drinking water quality issues. This thesis describes the development and application of a parameter-efficient, numerical model to predict pesticide concentrations in raw water sources within an integrated hydrological framework. As such, it fills an unoccupied niche that exists in pesticide fate modelling for a computationally undemanding model that contains enough process complexity to be applicable in a wide range of catchments and hydrogeological settings in the UK and beyond. The model represents the key processes involved in pesticide fate (linear sorption and first-order degradation) and transport (surface runoff, lateral throughflow, drain flow, percolation to the unsaturated zone, calculated using a soil water balance) in the soil at a daily time step. Soil properties are derived from the national soil database for England and Wales and are used to define the boundary conditions at the interface between the subsoil and the unsaturated zone. This is the basis of the integrated hydrological framework which enables the application of the model to both surface water catchments and groundwater resources. The unsaturated zone model accounts for solute transport through two flow domains (accounting for fracture flow and intergranular matrix flow) in three hydrogeological settings (considering the presence and permeability of superficial deposits). The model was first applied to a small headwater sub-catchment in the upper Cherwell. Performance was good for drainflow predictions (Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency > 0.61) and performed better than the MACRO model and as well as the modified MACRO model. Surface water model performance was evaluated for eight pesticides in five different catchments. Performance was generally good for flow prediction (Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency > 0.59 and percentage bias below 10 %, in the validation period for all but two catchments). The 90th percentile measured concentration was captured by the model in 62 % of catchment-pesticide combinations. In theremaining cases predictions were within, at most, a factor of four of measured 90th percentile concentrations. The rank order of the frequency of pesticides detected over 0.1 μg L-1 was also predicted reasonably well (Spearman’s rank coefficient > 0.75; p < 0.05 in three catchments). Pesticide transport in the unsaturated zone model was explored at the point scale in three aquifers (chalk, limestone and sandstone). The results demonstrate that representing the unsaturated zone processes can have a major effect on the timing and magnitude of pesticide transfers to the water table. In comparison with the other catchment scale pesticide fate models that predict pesticide exposure at a daily time-step, the model developed stands out requiring only a small number of parameters for calibration and quick simulation times. The benefit of this is that the model can be used to predict pesticide exposure in multiple surface and groundwater resources relatively quickly which makes it a useful tool for water company risk assessment. The broad-scale approach to pesticide fate and transport modelling presented here can help to identify and prioritise pesticide monitoring strategies, to compare catchments in order to target catchment management and to highlight potential problems that could arise under different future scenarios.
Open Access
Modelling Soil Bulk Density using Data-Mining and Expert Knowledge
(Cranfield University, 2013-04) Taalab, Khaled Paul; Corstanje, Ronald; Whelan, Michael J.; Creamer, Rachel E.
Data about the spatial variation of soil attributes is required to address a great number of environmental issues, such as improving water quality, flood mitigation, and determining the effects of the terrestrial carbon cycle. The need for a continuum of soils data is problematic, as it is only possible to observe soil attributes at a limited number of locations, beyond which, prediction is required. There is, however, disparity between the way in which much of the existing information about soil is recorded and the format in which the data is required. There are two primary methods of representing the variation in soil properties, as a set of distinct classes or as a continuum. The former is how the variation in soils has been recorded historically by the soil survey, whereas the latter is how soils data is typically required. One solution to this issue is to use a soil-landscape modelling approach which relates the soil to the wider landscape (including topography, land-use, geology and climatic conditions) using a statistical model. In this study, the soil-landscape modelling approach has been applied to the prediction of soil bulk density (Db). The original contribution to knowledge of the study is demonstrating that producing a continuous surface of Db using a soil-landscape modelling approach is that a viable alternative to the ‘classification’ approach which is most frequently used. The benefit of this method is shown in relation to the prediction of soil carbon stocks, which can be predicted more accurately and with less uncertainty. The second part of this study concerns the inclusion of expert knowledge within the soil-landscape modelling approach. The statistical modelling approaches used to predict Db are data driven, hence it is difficult to interpret the processes which the model represents. In this study, expert knowledge is used to predict Db within a Bayesian network modelling framework, which structures knowledge in terms of probability.This approach creates models which can be more easily interpreted and consequently facilitate knowledge discovery, it also provides a method for expert knowledge to be used as a proxy for empirical data. The contribution to knowledge of this section of the study is twofold, firstly, that Bayesian networks can be used as tools for data-mining to predict a continuous soil attribute such as Db and that in lieu of data, expert knowledge can be used to accurately predict landscape-scale trends in the variation of Db using a Bayesian modelling approach.
Open Access
Multimedia fate of petroleum hydrocarbons in the soil: Oil matrix of constructed biopiles
(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2010-12-31T00:00:00Z) Coulon, Frederic; Whelan, Michael J.; Paton, Graeme I.; Semple, Kirk T.; Villa, Raffaella; Pollard, Simon J. T.
A dynamic multimedia fugacity model was used to evaluate the partitioning and fate of petroleum hydrocarbon fractions and aromatic indicator compounds within the soil: oil matrix of three biopiles. Each biopile was characterised by four compartments: air, water, soil solids and non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL). Equilibrium partitioning in biopile A and B suggested that most fractions resided in the NAPL, with the exception of the aromatic fraction with an equivalent carbon number from 5 to 7 (EC5-7). In Biopile C, which had the highest soil organic carbon content (13%), the soil solids were the most important compartment for both light aliphatic fractions (EC5-6 and EC6-8) and aromatic fractions, excluding the EC16-21 and EC21-35. Our starting hypothesis was that hydrocarbons do not degrade within the NAPL. This was supported by the agreement between predicted and measured hydrocarbon concentrations in Biopile B when the degradation rate constant in NAPL was set to zero. In all scenarios, biodegradation in soil was predicted as the dominant removal process for all fractions, except for the aliphatic EC5-6 which was predominantly lost via volatilization. The absence of an explicit NAPL phase in the model yielded a similar prediction of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) behaviour; however the predicted concentrations in the air and water phases were significantly increased with consequent changes in potential mobility. Further comparisons between predictions and measured data, particularly concentrations in the soil mobile phases, are required to ascertain the true value of including an explicit NAPL in models of this kind.
Open Access
A multi‐component method to determine pesticides in surface water by liquid‐chromatography tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry
(Wiley, 2017-06-15) Ramos, Andre; Cosgrove, Stephanie; Villa, Raffaella; Jefferson, Bruce; Campo Moreno, Pablo; Jarvis, Peter; Whelan, Michael J.; Guymer, Ian
Pesticide pollution of surface water is a major concern in many agricultural catchments The development of rapid and accurate methods for determining pesticide concentrations in water samples is, therefore, important. Here we describe a method for the simultaneous analysis of six pesticides (metaldehyde, quinmerac, carbetamide, metazachlor, propyzamide and pendimethalin) in natural waters by direct aqueous injection with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The method validation showed good linearity from 0.2 to 50.0 µg/L with correlation coefficients between 0.995 and 0.999. Method accuracy ranged from 84 to 100% and precision Relative standard deviation (RSD) from 4 to 15%. The limits of detection for the targeted pesticides ranged from 0.03 to 0.36 µg/L. No significant matrix effects on quantification were observed (t-test). The method was tested on water samples from a small arable catchment in eastern England. Peak concentrations for the determinands ranged from 1 to 10 µg/L.
Open Access
Predicting Aspergillus fumigatus exposure from composting facilities using a dispersion model: a conditional calibration and validation
(Elsevier, 2017-01) Douglas, Philippa; Tyrrel, Sean F.; Kinnersley, Robert P.; Whelan, Michael J.; Longhurst, Philip J.; Hansell, Anna L.; Walsh, Kerry A.; Pollard, Simon J. T.; Drew, Gillian H.
Bioaerosols are released in elevated quantities from composting facilities and are associated with negative health effects, although dose-response relationships are unclear. Exposure levels are difficult to quantify as established sampling methods are costly, time-consuming and current data provide limited temporal and spatial information. Confidence in dispersion model outputs in this context would be advantageous to provide a more detailed exposure assessment. We present the calibration and validation of a recognised atmospheric dispersion model (ADMS) for bioaerosol exposure assessments. The model was calibrated by a trial and error optimisation of observed Aspergillus fumigatus concentrations at different locations around a composting site. Validation was performed using a second dataset of measured concentrations for a different site. The best fit between modelled and measured data was achieved when emissions were represented as a single area source, with a temperature of 29 °C. Predicted bioaerosol concentrations were within an order of magnitude of measured values (1000–10,000 CFU/m3) at the validation site, once minor adjustments were made to reflect local differences between the sites (r2 > 0.7 at 150, 300, 500 and 600 m downwind of source). Results suggest that calibrated dispersion modelling can be applied to make reasonable predictions of bioaerosol exposures at multiple sites and may be used to inform site regulation and operational management.
Open Access
Probabilistic modelling for assessment of exposure via drinking water. Final Report of Project Defra WT1263 / DWI 70/2/273
(2014-01-24) Parsons, David J.; Whelan, Michael J.; Bevan, Ruth
Open Access
Sensitivity of predicted bioaerosol exposure from open windrow composting facilities to ADMS dispersion model parameters
(Elsevier, 2016-10-13) Douglas, Philippa; Tyrrel, Sean F.; Kinnersley, Robert P.; Whelan, Michael J.; Longhurst, Philip J.; Walsh, Kerry A.; Pollard, Simon J. T.; Drew, Gillian H.
Bioaerosols are released in elevated quantities from composting facilities and are associated with negative health effects, although dose-response relationships are not well understood, and require improved exposure classification. Dispersion modelling has great potential to improve exposure classification, but has not yet been extensively used or validated in this context. We present a sensitivity analysis of the ADMS dispersion model specific to input parameter ranges relevant to bioaerosol emissions from open windrow composting. This analysis provides an aid for model calibration by prioritising parameter adjustment and targeting independent parameter estimation. Results showed that predicted exposure was most sensitive to the wet and dry deposition modules and the majority of parameters relating to emission source characteristics, including pollutant emission velocity, source geometry and source height. This research improves understanding of the accuracy of model input data required to provide more reliable exposure predictions.
Open Access
A tiered assessment of human health risks associated with exposure to persistent, mobile and toxic chemicals via drinking water
(Elsevier, 2025-01-01) Whelan, Michael J.; Pemberton, Emma; Hughes, Christopher B.; Swansborough, Chesney; Goslan, Emma Harriet; Gouin, Todd; Bell, Victoria A.; Bird, E.; Bull, S.; Segal, L.; Cook, S. H.; Jephcote, Calvin; Fane, Sarah
There is increasing interest in chemicals which are persistent, mobile and toxic (PMT), primarily to protect drinking water. We present a tiered assessment of drinking water exposure and associated human health risks for 22 PMT substances. Worst-case exposure via drinking water is assumed to occur when wastewater is discharged to rivers which are then abstracted for water supply. Screening-level exposures assume daily per capita emissions based on REACH tonnage estimates, with removal in wastewater treatment calculated using SimpleTreat and no riverine dilution. Removal in water treatment was estimated for each substance assuming either conventional or advanced treatment processes. Higher tier spatially-resolved exposures used a gridded routing model which transfers chemical through the landscape based on flow directions derived from a 1 km digital elevation model. Emission was assumed to be proportional to population and no in-stream degradation was assumed. Exposures were calculated for 296 locations containing drinking water treatment works (WTWs) under mean discharge and Q95 (discharge exceeded 95% of the time). At low tiers, risk characterisation ratios (RCRs) were < 1 for all substances, assuming realistic tonnage and conventional treatment. If drinking water is assumed to represent only 20 % of total chemical intake, total RCRs (RCRT) were > 1 for three substances under conventional treatment but were < 1 for all substances under advanced treatment. Highest exposure and RCRs were predicted in highly populated areas with low dilution. RCRT values were > 1 for tetrachloroethylene (highest RCR) at up to 18 % of WTW locations under Q95 conditions assuming conventional treatment. However, RCRT was <1 for all locations assuming advanced treatment. Actual exposures will depend on catchment characteristics, but the model usefully allows prioritising higher risk chemicals and WTWs. Overall, the substances evaluated are unlikely to currently pose health risks, provided an appropriate level of water treatment is employed.
Open Access
Towards a conceptual model of the impact zone ecology in rivers
(Cranfield University, 2014-11) Roche, Nicola; Gill, Andrew B.; Whelan, Michael J.
In many regions of the world, untreated wastewater is discharged directly into rivers containing sanitary determinands including ammonia, nitrite and organic matter which places a demand on dissolved oxygen in the water. The wastewater may also contain chemical ingredients of home and personal care products. When sewage treatment is lacking, often in developing regions, these sanitary determinands and down-the-drain chemicals may be present at high concentrations in surface waters which may adversely impact the ecological communities present downstream of the effluent outfall. Some studies have studied these ecological effects by sampling the taxa present at regular intervals downstream of an wastewater outfall, from which a common pattern in terms of macroinvertebrate species richness, dominance and diversity throughout the impact zone is evident. The aim of the project was to develop a conceptual model in order to predict the ecological composition downstream of an effluent outfall, as a result of multiple stressors’ concentration gradients. The model combines water quality data and toxicity data of the stressors on aquatic organisms, in the form of species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) to predict this impact. The model was based on selected stressors: ammonia, nitrite and dissolved oxygen which are present, in particular, in untreated wastewater; and two chemical ingredients used in home and personal care products which are washed down-the-drain. The model was applied to data from a field study on the South Elkhorn Creek in Kentucky, USA. Predicted effects on taxonomic composition were in line with field observations, although further enhancements to the model could incorporate more environmental realism. This was a useful step in the direction to creating a conceptual model of the impact zone ecology in rivers.
Open Access
Water Framework Directive Article 7, The Drinking Water Directive and European Pesticide Regulation: impacts on diffuse pesticide pollution, potable water decision making and catchment management strategy
(Cranfield University, 2013-10) Dolan, Tom; Parsons, David; Howsam, Peter; Whelan, Michael J.; Varga, Liz
The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) promotes increased awareness of catchment processes and challenges the established dependence on a ‘treatment-led approach’ for the supply of European Drinking Water Directive (DWD) compliant potable water. In particular, WFD Article 7 promotes a ‘prevention-led approach’ to DWD compliance, based on pollution prevention at source to reduce investment in new treatment. In this context the challenge of preventing diffuse pesticide pollution from agricultural sources is significant because metaldehyde (a molluscide) and to a lesser extent the herbicide clopyralid are, despite current treatment, causing DWD non compliance for drinking water in a number of English catchments. Analysis presented here identifies that a successful transition from a ‘treatment-led’ to a ‘prevention-led’ approach will require collective action from, and shared mutual understanding between, a number of stakeholder groups. However, each of these groups has a unique perspective on WFD Article 7 and other elements of the currently uncoordinated legal and voluntary framework for diffuse pesticide pollution prevention. A toolbox of intervention options and a set of criteria to evaluate current catchment management actions are proposed to help the WFD competent authority facilitate WFD Article 7 compliance.Water suppliers need to improve their understanding of the reasons for pesticide use. Through consultation with pesticide agronomists, important drivers of pesticide use, a hierarchy of adaptation options available if a particular pesticide is restricted and key messages for catchment managers and regulators were identified. Based on this foundation a classification system to inform and prioritise water sector decision making for investment in catchment management was developed.Additionally, analysis presented here demonstrates that the DWD standard for pesticides, which determines the level of catchment management required for WFD Article 7 compliance, is not itself consistent with European environmental policy principles, particularly the precautionary principle, and needs to be reviewed.

Browsing by Author "Whelan, Michael J."

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