Evaluation of failings in urban water supply and sanitation systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review to inform future planning

The high failure rate of water supply and sanitation (WSS) systems is a major concern, especially for developing countries. Using the Collaboration for Environmental Evidence guidelines, this study carried out a systematic review of literature on failings in WSS in the urban areas of Sub-Saharan Africa to identify the factors hindering sustainability as lasting coverage. There were 101 full-text articles examined and 21 articles included in the final review. The findings are discussed through the lens of the financial, institutional, environmental, technological and social (FIETS) framework and depicted in a causal loop diagram to visualize the system structure. In total, 37 factors that contribute to the failings of urban WSS systems across 14 Sub-Saharan African countries were identified. The root causes of failed or failing systems included a lack of stakeholder engagement in the planning and implementation; limited human resources capacity; limitations imposed by settlement type (informal settlements); insufficient funds, corruption and mismanagement of funds; and insufficient operation and maintenance of facilities. The study concludes that sustainability in the sector will involve the use of legal instruments, adequate planning techniques, anti-corruption and cost recovery mechanisms to ensure long-term financing.