Quantitative microbial risk assessment of bioaerosol emissions from squat and bidet toilets during flushing

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dc.contributor.authorAli, Wajid
dc.contributor.authorHu, Zhen
dc.contributor.authorTang, Zhe‐ren
dc.contributor.authorLiu, Si‐yi
dc.contributor.authorNasir, Zaheer Ahmad
dc.contributor.authorCoulon, Frederic
dc.contributor.authorLiu, Peng
dc.contributor.authorYan, Cheng
dc.date.accessioned2025-02-24T11:37:21Z
dc.date.available2025-02-24T11:37:21Z
dc.date.freetoread2025-02-24
dc.date.issued2025-02-17
dc.date.pubOnline2025-02-17
dc.description.abstractBioaerosol emissions during toilet flushing are an often‐overlooked source of potential health risks in shared public facilities. This study systematically investigated the emission characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli bioaerosols in washrooms with squat and bidet toilets under varying flushing conditions and ventilation scenarios. Using Monte Carlo simulation–based quantitative microbial risk assessment and sensitivity analysis, the study estimated the disease burden and identified key factors influencing risk. The results showed that squat toilets generated 1.7–2.6 times higher concentrations of S. aureus bioaerosols and 1.2–1.4 times higher concentrations of E. coli bioaerosols compared to bidet toilets. After the first flush, bioaerosol concentrations were 1.3–1.8 times (S. aureus) and 1.2–1.4 times (E. coli) lower than those observed after the second flush. The second flush released a higher proportion of fine bioaerosol particles (<4.7 µm), increasing inhalation risks. The disease health risk burden was consistently one order of magnitude lower after the first flush than the second one. Ventilation with a turned‐on exhaust fan further reduced the risk by one order of magnitude. Sensitivity analysis identified exposure concentration as the most influential parameter, contributing up to 50% of the overall risk. This study highlights the importance of optimizing toilet design and ventilation systems to mitigate bioaerosol emissions and associated health risks. It provides actionable insights for improving public washroom hygiene and minimizing bioaerosol exposure.
dc.description.journalNameRisk Analysis
dc.description.sponsorshipF.C., Z.A.N., and C.Y. gratefully acknowledge the support of the Environmental Microbiology and Human Health Programme (Grant Reference NE/M010961/1) and the SPF Clean Air Programme (Grant NE/V002171/1) in facilitating this collaborative study.
dc.format.extentpp. xx-xx
dc.identifier.citationAli W, Hu Z, Tang Z, et al., (2025) Quantitative microbial risk assessment of bioaerosol emissions from squat and bidet toilets during flushing. Risk Analysis, Available online 17 February 2025en_UK
dc.identifier.eissn1539-6924
dc.identifier.elementsID564805
dc.identifier.issn0272-4332
dc.identifier.issueNoahead-of-print
dc.identifier.urihttps://doi.org/10.1111/risa.70000
dc.identifier.urihttps://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/23514
dc.identifier.volumeNoahead-of-print
dc.languageEnglish
dc.language.isoen
dc.publisherWileyen_UK
dc.publisher.urihttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/risa.70000
dc.rightsAttribution 4.0 Internationalen
dc.rights.urihttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
dc.subjectStrategic, Defence & Security Studiesen_UK
dc.subjectbioaerosolen_UK
dc.subjectdisease burdenen_UK
dc.subjectMonte Carlo simulationen_UK
dc.subjectquantitative microbial risk assessmenten_UK
dc.subjectsensitivity analysisen_UK
dc.subjecttoileten_UK
dc.titleQuantitative microbial risk assessment of bioaerosol emissions from squat and bidet toilets during flushingen_UK
dc.typeArticle
dcterms.dateAccepted2025-01-08

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