Abstract:
The aim of this work was to investigate the influence of surface loading from conventional field
operations on the damage to buried artefacts, both pots and bones.
The objectives of this research were a) to investigate the influence of surface loading and
resulting breakage relating to the material strengths of buried objects - ceramic (unglazed), and
aged bone; b) to assess the magnitudes of peak subsurface pressures transferred through soil
under the dynamic surface loading from tyres and other field operations; c) to develop and test
an empirical model for predicting the effects of subsurface pressure application on buried
objects from surface loads; and d) to explore ways of identifying the potential for damage to
buried artefacts under agricultural and other field operations.
Experimental investigations were performed in both the laboratory and field. The laboratory
work was undertaken to determine the magnitude of subsurface pressure at which buried
objects were damaged. Conducted in a sandy-loam-filled soil bin, instrumented ceramic and
bone artefacts were buried alongside pressure sensors and subjected to loading by a single
smooth tyre appropriately loaded and inflated for subsurface pressure generation. The
breakage of the buried objects and the pressures under the moving tyre were recorded in order
to allow correlation of the subsurface pressures to buried artefact breakage. The fieldwork was
done to determine the magnitudes of subsurface pressure generated by individual field
operations whilst travelling in a similar sandy loam field soil. Four plots were established, with
each assigned a particular cultivation regime. An accelerated timeframe was utilized so that a
years’ series of field operations could be driven over pressure sensors buried in the soil. The
peak pressures from each field operation within each plot were recorded and summarized, and
the data was analysed relative to field operation type and cultivation regime type.
Multiple statistical analyses were performed, as the laboratory data and field data were
independently evaluated before being correlated together. An empirical relationship between
buried object damage and subsurface pressure magnitude was developed.
The different pot types and bone orientations broke at different subsurface pressures. The four
pot types listed in ascending order of strength to resist damage (with breakage pressure
threshold value) are: shell tempered (1.3 bar), grog tempered (1.6 bar), flint tempered (3.1 bar),
and sand tempered (3.6 bar). Aged human radius bones were tested, and the parallel bone
orientation proved stronger than the perpendicular orientation, where 2.8 bar was the lowest
subsurface pressure found to cause damage.
The primary field operations, presented in ascending order relative to peak magnitude of
subsurface pressure per specific operation, are: roll (0.68 bar), drill (1.03 bar), heavy duty
cultivator (1.21 bar), spray 1 (1.27 bar), harvester (1.30 bar), spray 2 (1.31 bar), tractor / trailer (1.46 bar), shallow mouldboard plough (1.61 bar), deep mouldboard plough (2.04 bar). The
relationships between vehicle specification and subsurface pressure generation potential were
described, relating to the vehicle mass, tyre/track physical properties, and tyre inflation
pressure. The effect of cultivation method on overall magnitude of subsurface pressure was
defined, with lowest pressure generation within a zero-till cultivation regime (1.08 bar), higher in
a non-inversion cultivation regime (1.13 bar), followed by the shallow inversion regime (1.22
bar), and highest within a conventional inversion scheme (1.30 bar).
The laboratory and field results were correlated by a statistical analysis comparing breakage
point to peak subsurface pressure. The shell tempered pot was found to be most susceptible to
damage. The grog tempered pot was less vulnerable to damage, followed by the flint tempered
pot. The quartz tempered pot was predicted to survive intact under all field operations within
this research.
In conclusion, this research has developed a functional and predictive empirical relationship
between damage to pot and aged bone artefacts from subsurface soil pressures generated by
surface traffic.
It has been found that different types of buried pot and bone artefacts break at different
subsurface pressures. In addition, a complete dataset consisting of peak subsurface pressures
recorded under a year’s range of field operations within a sandy loam soil at field-working
moisture content has been compiled. The effect of different cultivation methods on the
generation of subsurface pressures was also evaluated. The breakage thresholds specific to
each artefact type have been related to the in-field subsurface soil pressures. A correlation of
breakage to the subsurface pressures under each operation yields a prediction of percentage of
artefact-type breakage. From this correlation, relationships are observed between vehicle
specification, subsurface pressure generation, and consequential artefact breakage.
The achievements provide knowledge about how field operations affect specific types of buried
archaeology, providing a valuable asset to farmers, land managers, and regulatory bodies. It is
evident that agricultural practices, choice of track or tyre type, and inflation pressures must be carefully managed if the intention is to protect or mitigate damage to buried archaeological
artefacts. Thus, a contribution has been made to the development of ‘best management
practices’ and to the specification and use of field operations relative to intended mitigation of buried artefact damage.