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Item Open Access 3D automatic target recognition for missile platforms(2017-05) Kechagias Stamatis, Odysseas; Aouf, NabilThe quest for military Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) procedures arises from the demand to reduce collateral damage and fratricide. Although missiles with two-dimensional ATR capabilities do exist, the potential of future Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) missiles with three-dimensional (3D) ATR abilities shall significantly improve the missile’s effectiveness in complex battlefields. This is because 3D ATR can encode the target’s underlying structure and thus reinforce target recognition. However, the current military grade 3D ATR or military applied computer vision algorithms used for object recognition do not pose optimum solutions in the context of an ATR capable LIDAR based missile, primarily due to the computational and memory (in terms of storage) constraints that missiles impose. Therefore, this research initially introduces a 3D descriptor taxonomy for the Local and the Global descriptor domain, capable of realising the processing cost of each potential option. Through these taxonomies, the optimum missile oriented descriptor per domain is identified that will further pinpoint the research route for this thesis. In terms of 3D descriptors that are suitable for missiles, the contribution of this thesis is a 3D Global based descriptor and four 3D Local based descriptors namely the SURF Projection recognition (SPR), the Histogram of Distances (HoD), the processing efficient variant (HoD-S) and the binary variant B-HoD. These are challenged against current state-of-the-art 3D descriptors on standard commercial datasets, as well as on highly credible simulated air-to-ground missile engagement scenarios that consider various platform parameters and nuisances including simulated scale change and atmospheric disturbances. The results obtained over the different datasets showed an outstanding computational improvement, on average x19 times faster than state-of-the-art techniques in the literature, while maintaining or even improving on some occasions the detection rate to a minimum of 90% and over of correct classified targets.Item Open Access 3D conformal antennas for radar applications(2018) Fourtinon, L; Balleri, AlessioEmbedded below the radome of a missile, existing RF-seekers use a mechanical rotating antenna to steer the radiating beam in the direction of a target. Latest research is looking at replacing the mechanical antenna components of the RF seeker with a novel 3D conformal antenna array that can steer the beam electronically. 3D antennas may oer signicant advantages, such as faster beamsteering and better coverage but, at the same time, introduce new challenges resulting from a much more complex radiation pattern than that of 2D antennas. Thanks to the mechanical system removal, the new RF-seeker has a wider available space for the design of a new 3D conformal antenna. To take best benets of this space, dierent array shapes are studied, hence the impact of the position, orientation and conformation of the elements is assessed on the antenna performance in terms of directivity, ellipticity and polarisation. To facilitate this study of 3D conformal arrays, a Matlab program has been developed to compute the polarisation pattern of a given array in all directions. One of the task of the RF-seeker consists in estimating the position of a given target to correct the missile trajectory accordingly. Thus, the impact of the array shape on the error between the measured direction of arrival of the target echo and its true value is addressed. The Cramer-Rao lower bound is used to evaluate the theoretical minimum error. The model assumes that each element receives independently and allows therefore to analyse the potential of active 3D conformal arrays. Finally, the phase monopulse estimator is studied for 3D conformal arrays whose quadrants do not have the same characteristics. A new estimator more adapted to non-identical quadrants is also proposed.Item Open Access 3D Panoptic Segmentation with Unsupervised Clustering for Visual Perception in Autonomous Driving(2021-09) Grenier, Amelie; Chermak, LFor the past decade, substantial progress has been achieved in the field of visual per ception for autonomous driving application thanks notably to the capabilities of deep learning techniques. This work aims to leverage stereovision and explore different methods, in particular unsupervised clustering approaches, to perform 3D panoptic segmentation for navigation purposes. The main contribution of this work consists in the development, test and validation of a novel framework in which geometric and semantic understanding of the scene are obtained separately at the pixel level. The combination of both for the extracted visual 2D information of the desired class provides a 3D sparse classified point cloud, which is used afterward for instance clustering. Preliminary tests of the baseline version of the framework for Vehicle objects were conducted on urban driving datasets. Results demonstrate for the first time the via bility for processing of this type of point cloud from visual data, and reveal improve ments areas. Specially, the importance of the boundary F-score in semantic seg mentation is highlighted for the first time in this application, with an increase up to 32 percentage point in this study. Additional contribution was made by applying distribution clustering as well as density based clustering for instance segmentation in a visual based 3D space representa tion. Results showed that DBSCAN was well suited for this application. As a result, it was proven that the presented framework can successfully provide genuine 3D profile map representation and localisation of vehicles in a urban environment from 2D visual information only. Furthermore, the mathematical formalisation of the link between DBSCAN’s param eter selection and camera projective geometry was presented as future work and a mean to demystify parameter selection.Item Open Access Aerodynamics and performance enhancement of a ground-effect diffuser(2018-04) Ehirim, O H; Knowles, Kevin; Saddington, Alistair J.This study involved experimental and equivalent computational investigations into the automobile-type 3―D flow physics of a diffuser bluff body in ground-effect and novel passive flow-control methods applied to the diffuser flow to enhance the diffuser’s aerodynamic performance. The bluff body used in this study is an Ahmed-like body employed in an inverted position with the slanted section together with the addition of side plates along both sides forming the ramped diffuser section. The first part of the study confirmed reported observations from previous studies that the downforce generated by the diffuser in proximity to a ground plane is influenced by the peak suction at the diffuser inlet and subsequent static pressure-recovery towards the diffuser exit. Also, when the bluff body ride height is gradually reduced from high to low, the diffuser flow as indicated by its force curve and surface flow features undergoes four distinct flow regimes (types A to D). The types A and B regimes are reasonably symmetrical, made up of two low-pressure core longitudinal vortices travelling along both sides of the diffuser length and they increase downforce and drag with reducing ride height. However, below the ride heights of the type B regime, types C and D regimes are asymmetrical because of the breakdown of one vortex; consequently a significant loss in downforce and drag occurs. The second part of the study involved the use ― near the diffuser exit ― of a convex bump on the diffuser ramp surface and an inverted wing between the diffuser side plates as passive flow control devices. The modification of the diffuser geometry with these devices employed individually or in combination, induced a second-stage pressure-drop and recovery near the diffuser exit. This behaviour was due to the radial pressure gradient induced on the diffuser flow by the suction surface ii curvature of the passive devices. As a result of this aerodynamic phenomenon, the diffuser generated across the flow regimes additional downforce, and a marginal increase in drag due to the profile drag induced by the devices.Item Open Access Agent-Based Modelling of Offensive Actors in Cyberspace(2021-12) Sidorenko, Tatjana; Hodges, D; Buckley, OWith the rise of the Information Age, there has also been a growing rate of attacks targeting information. In order to better defend against these attacks being able to understand attackers and simulate their behaviour is of utmost importance. A recent approach of using serious games provides an avenue to explore offensive cyber attacks in a safe and fun environment. There exists a wide range of cyber attackers, with varying levels of expertise whose motivations are different. This project provides a novel contribution in using games to allow people to role play as malicious attackers and then using these games as inputs into the simulation. A board game has been designed that emulates a cyber environment, where players represent offensive actors, with seven roles - Cyber Mercenary (low and high capability), State-backed (low and high capability), Script Kiddy, Hacktivist and Counter-culture (not motivated by finances or ideology). The facilitator or the Games Master (GM) represents the organisation under attack, and players use the Technique cards to perform attacks on the organisation, all cards are sourced from existing Tools, Techniques and Procedures (TTPs). Along with the game, players also provided responses to a questionnaire that encapsulated three individual differences: Sneider's self-report, DOSPERT and Barratt's Impulsiveness scale. There were a total of 15 players participating in 13 games, and three key groups of individual differences players. No correlation was identifed with the individual Technique card pick rate and role. However, the complexity of the attack patterns (Technique card chains) was modulated by roles, and the players' individual differences. A proof-of-concept simulation has been made using an Agent-Based Modelling framework that re-plays the actions of a player. One of the aspects of future work is the exploitation of the game data to be used as a learning model to create intelligent standalone agents.Item Open Access The analysis of latent fingermark chemistry using fourier=transform infrared spectroscopy(2018-01) Johnston, A; Rogers, KeithLatent fingerprints are comprised of a complex mixture of orfanic and inorganic components that exhibit broad chemical variability. Fingermarks are dynamic compositions prone to degradation over time and in varying environmental conditions. The complexity of latent fingermark chemistry has led to an abundance of literature over a number of years utilizing various analytical techniques, which have endeavoured to provide a greater understanding of these complex chemical systems. In particular, a key focus has been on fingermark decomposition and with recent advances in analytical instrumentation a more in-depth understanding of the dynamics of fingermark chemistry has been achieved despite this, there remain significant gaps in the literature. The work presented within this thesis looks at various aspectsof latent fingermark chemistry that aim to address these gaps. During this research the capabilities and limitations of Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectromicroscopy were compared to the more established analytical technique of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the analysis of latent fingermarks. A novel approach to analysing the change in latent fingermark chemistry over time at various moderate temperatures was demonstrated. An investigation into the intermolecular interactions of lipid components within simplified analogue “fingermark” solutions was conducted, and the implications of these interactions for natural fingermark chemistry considered. Finally the temporal degradation of illicit substances in latent fingermarks using Spectroscopic imaging was investigated. The results of this study, structured in the form of four research papers, demonstrate the complexity of latent fingermark composition, variability, and analysis. The issue FTIR spectromicroscopy to study in-situ, real-time changes in fingermark chemistry subjected to varying temperatures showed that total composition is affected by temperatures above 50oC, and oxidation mechanisms take place almost immediately after deposition, even ar room temperature. The use of simplified analogue fingermark solutions to study intermolecular interactions within natural fingermarks identified two key components, squalene and cholesterol, that potentially affect downstream organic interactions post-deposition. Finally spectroscopic imaging successfully identified and spatially mapped aged illicit substances present within latent fingermarks up to thirty days post- deposision. It was also possible to quantify degradation of those illicit compounds over time. Due to the different facets of this research, the results of this thesis are expected to have an impact on a broad range of disciplines both qithin academia and fo more piratical forensic applications.Item Open Access The Application of Deep Learning Algorithms to Longwave Infrared Missile Seekers(2021-12) Westlake, Samuel T; James, D BConvolutional neural networks (CNNs) have already surpassed human-level performance in complex computer vision applications, and can potentially significantly advance the performance of infrared anti-ship guided missile seeker algorithms. But the performance of CNN-based algorithms is very dependent on the data used to optimise them, typically requiring large sets of fully-annotated real-world training examples. Across four technical chapters, this thesis addresses the challenges involved with applying CNNs to longwave infrared ship detection, recognition, and identification. Across four technical chapters, this thesis addresses the challenges involved with applying CNNs to longwave infrared ship detection, recognition, and identification. The absence of suitable longwave infrared training data was addressed through the synthetic generation of a large, thermally-realistic dataset of 972,000 fully labelled images of military ships with varying seascapes and background clutter. This dataset—IRShips—is the largest openly available repository of such images worldwide. Configurable automated workflow pipelines significantly enhance the development of CNN-based algorithms. No such tool was available when this body of work began, so an integrated modular deep learning development environment—Deeplodocus—was created. Publicly-available, it now features among the top 50% of packages on the Python Package Index repository. Using Deeplodocus, the fully-convolutional one-stage YOLOv3 object detection algorithm was trained to detect ships in a highly-cluttered sequence of real world longwave infrared imagery. Further enhancement of YOLOv3 resulted in an F-score of 0.945 being achieved, representing the first time synthetic data has been used to train a CNN algorithm to successfully detect military ships in longwave infrared imagery.Benchmarking YOLOv3’s detection accuracy against two alternative CNNs— Faster R-CNN and Mask R-CNN—using visual-spectrum and near-infrared data from the Singapore Maritime dataset, showed that YOLOv3 was three times faster, but 3% less accurate than Mask R-CNN. Modifying YOLOv3 through the use of spectral domain-dependent encoding delivered state-of-the-art accuracy with respect to the near-infrared test data, while maintaining YOLOv3’s considerable speed advantage.Item Open Access Armoured vehicle manufacturing in the Gulf States challenges and future vision: a systems engineering perspective(Cranfield University, 2019) Aljeeran, Isa Khalifa Abdulla; Hameed, Amer; McCormack, John; Adcock, RickThe armoured vehicles manufacturers (AVMs) in the Gulf States encounter many difficulties related to their current performance, their customers' circumstances and the interactions between them. The AVMs are Small and Medium Enterprises (SME), owned by entrepreneurs who manage their organisations intuitively, leading to likely performance degradation which affects their outputs and thus customer satisfaction. On the other side, the customers lack essential elements of the acquisition process such as the non-existence of published defence strategies documents, customer needs not being precisely clarified to the developers, demand fluctuation, customer individuals’ knowledge being insufficient to contribute toward developing the intended values, etc. Third, the interactions between AVMs and their stakeholders, the customer in particulars, do not rise to the level of product importance. These environments form the dynamic environment that AVMs in the Gulf states currently face besides other circumstances, such as the fierce competition worldwide, considerably changes regarding the threats and needs, constant technology advancements, and political challenges, which combined may hinder AVMs from attaining their instant (customer satisfaction) and future (market sustainability) goals. Therefore, this thesis pursues aims to enable the owners/managers (entrepreneurs) of AVMs in the Arabian Gulf States to employ their resources efficiently to deliver innovative values that satisfy the needs of all of their stakeholders, customers in particular, within the dynamic environment. Dealing with the dynamic environment requires intensive planning and the execution of known managerial disciplines, such as strategy, supply chain and business to business (B2B) interactions along with utilising essential tools provided by the System Engineering (SE) discipline. The latter subject has adequate means to optimise the strategy and supply chain technical tools by integrating them with the related managerial tools to enhance the development efforts. Moreover, organised interactions among various related entities that share a well-designed network enforce the desirable integration and enhance the relationship in the B2B context which ensures customer satisfaction, confirms the AVM market’s sustainment, strengthens the defence industry and attains arms independence. These efforts must be monitored and controlled by higher national authorities’ substantial strategies to ensure that the national goals are achieved. Therefore, the author suggests a conceptual model to guide all interested parties, the AVM’s management, to enhance their performance by considering all essential managerial and technical aspects. The model also emphasises the importance of interactions in enforcing the applications of the strategic, design, production and test and evaluation process to enable AVMs to enhance their product development in order to capture customer satisfaction and succeed in business. The success of the national AVMs will lead to the attainment of one of the most important national objectives, i.e. arms independence.Item Open Access Assessing the role of citizenship education provision in preventing extremist radicalisation(2018) Gaffney, Francis; Silke, AndrewRadicalisation towards violent extremism within educational settings has emerged as a high profile and critical issue in many contemporary societies. Debates around the appropriate role of educational institutions should play in this regard have attracted intense media and public debate both in the UK and internationally. Arguably, education should be at the heart of anti-, -radicalisation plans, with an emphasis placed on educating children in a way that improves their economic, social, and personal well-being by developing resiliency. This research involved face-to-face interviews with 51 education sector professionals to establish an evidence base regarding current practice regarding the understanding of radicalisation and building young people’s resilience to violent extremism. These professionals were based across ten countries in Europe and the Middle East. This research aimed to examine staff attitudes to different aspects of the National Curriculum, notably Personal, Social, and Health Education (PSHE) and Citizenship Education (CE), aand how these could potentially impact on, or act as a source of potential triggers for, radicalisation. Several major themes were identified in the interview responses. In particular, the results highlighted a range of the limitations and shortfalls perceived by staff in CE provision and delivery. Many of these were widely shared across the sector while a few were more specific to certain regions. Major themes included 1) failings with how CE was delivered; 2) the impact of limited time allocation on CE activity; 3) a wide range of other challenges with regard to CE implementation; and 4) staff apprehension regarding their role and the role CE potentially plays in countering extremist behaviour. Regional level differences included, for example, participants in the UK flagging concerns about giving offence, participants in other European countries highlighting immigration and far-right issues, and participants in the Middle East heavily focusing on the 2011 Arab Spring and Sunni-Shi’a tensions. The results are compared with past research in this area and are used to identify a series of policy and practice recommendations, as well as avenues for future researchItem Open Access Ballistic extremity wounding : quantifying tissue damage associated with military firearms(2018) Stevenson, Tom; Carr, Debra J.; Harrison, K.; Critchley, Richard; Shortland, Andrew J.Gunshot wounding (GSW) is often the second most common mechanism of injury after explosive in war. With a large proportion of survivors typically suffering with extremity wounds, the clinical burden is often substantial. Following the recent Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts, this work set out to ascertain the clinical burden of GSW suffered by UK military personnel. A critical literature gap uncovered was pertaining to the effect of clothing on GSW patterns. A synthetic limb model was used to test the effect of UK military clothing on GSW patterns in a maximal and minimal state, as worn by front-line service personnel, using 7.62 x 39 mm and 5.45 x 39 mm ammunition types. Further work was then undertaken to develop a technique to facilitate precise examination of GSW patterns within an opaque target. Lastly, this led to the development of a cadaveric animal limb model to test the same military clothing states as with the synthetic model. Increased damage was found in the presence of the maximal clothing state within both models, which would translate clinically into a wound requiring more extensive surgical intervention. The relevance of these findings, along with critical appraisal of each model used are then discussed, with further work proposed.Item Open Access Bistatic SAR for Building Wall Material Characterisation(Cranfield University, 2020-07) Elgy, James; Andre, DanielThis thesis addresses the problem of using radar to extract interpretable information concerning both the structure and electrical properties of a wall, and the environment behind it. This is broken down into two subproblems: how to determine the thickness and electromagnetic properties of the wall without being in direct contact with it, and how to obtain the most accurate images of what lies beyond the wall. Existing research in the area is evaluated and a theoretical study is presented on the use of monostatic, bistatic, and multistatic Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) in both one and two dimensional apertures. New methods of determining the wall properties are evaluated by both computer simulation and with laboratory radar measurements, where a wall of concrete blocks is constructed. The robustness of the asymmetric SAR geometry approach is evaluated with the addition of complex objects placed behind the wall. The uncertainty associated with estimating the wall properties is evaluated and consequential improvements to image quality are discussed. It was found that an asymmetric bistatic SAR geometry accurately extracts the refractive index and thickness of a wall. The method is applicable to both cluttered environments and non-parallel wall trajectories without loss of accuracy. Applying a compensation for refraction in the SAR imagery results in better positional accuracy but does not necessarily result in better image focusing. Volumetric multistatic image formation benefits from applied refraction compensation. SAR image formation, and in particular volumetric image formation, can be significantly accelerated via a spatially variant basebanding technique followed by zero padding. Spatially variant basebanding is sub optimal when applied to a Through-Wall radar scenario where there is a visible wall signature in the image. Keywords: Through-Wall radar, Multistatic radar, Multidimensional signal processing, Electromagnetic propagation, Radar imaginItem Open Access The Boundaries of Flow: when the balance between a person’s challenges and capabilities becomes imbalanced, an empirical investigation of the relationship between subjective experience, capabilities and challenge.(2022-08) Forsyth, Tim; Hilton, Jeremy; Dodd, LorraineThe problematic situation this doctoral research project investigates concerns how the quality of a person’s lived subjective experience is affected by differing degrees of challenge: a product of pressures and demands that overwhelm a person’s knowledge, skills and experience (capability). The cost of stress and the ways stress make people vulnerable to illness is well documented. Therefore, the purpose of this doctoral research project is – to identify the thresholds (points) where the balance between challenges and capability moves to imbalance. This study uses Flow Theory and Complex Systems Theory as the foundation for this research. A literature review of flow theory pertaining to the research problem identified deficiencies in the models, methods and practices. As a result, the project is divided into two sections. The first section developed a new synthesised model of experience using an innovative suite of methods. The insights gained from this model were used to inform the second phase of the research project. The second phase utilises a novel multi-paradigmatic design strategy grounded in a realist philosophy of science. This approach facilitated the development of a quasi-experimental protocol and construct elicitation method to investigate the individual participant's subjective experience of varying degrees of challenge in the sensory and affective domains, respectively. This project contributes to the knowledge gap in two distinct yet complementary ways. Firstly, the research identified a relational link between challenge and subjective experience. Secondly, as experienced by the individual, challenge is incremental and cumulative. Moreover, this doctoral research project realises the overarching research objective by developing a codebook and a new synthesised model of experience. When the model and codebook are combined, they can identify when a person’s challenges and capabilities are aligned and misaligned through the various instances and absences of experiential states. This contribution represents a proof of concept. Future work is required to develop the method's applicability in organisational environments to support and enhance people’s lived experience of work.Item Open Access Boundary-layer transition on wings in ground effect(2017-12) Roberts, L. S.; Finnis, Mark V.; Knowles, KevinThe competitiveness of a high-performance racing car is extremely reliant on aerodynamics. Due to the current economic climate, track testing is often forsaken and the majority of aerodynamic development carried out using sub-scale wind tunnel testing and computational simulations. It is important, therefore, that experimental and computational approaches represent real-world conditions as closely as possible. Although racing cars travel at much higher speeds than typical passenger cars, in comparison to aircrafts they still operate at relatively low Reynolds numbers and, consequently, laminar and transitional phenomena are evident. Despite this, the bulk of relevant literature available for racing-car aerodynamics is undertaken with little regard to the influence of Reynolds number, and in the case of computational studies, the omission of laminar and transitional phenomena all together. The present work has demonstrated, using a super-scale two- dimensional wind-tunnel model, that laminar and transition flow phenomenon are important at Reynolds numbers equivalent to a full-scale racing car. Moreover, the influence of these aspects increased as the wing’s ground clearance reduced; meaning that in ground effect they are even more important. Further experiments with three-dimensional models of varying complexity, from a simple single-element wing to a highly complex F1-specification wing, showed that laminar phenomena are important for F1 applications as well as for lower-downforce capability racing cars. A transition-sensitive eddy-viscosity turbulence model, k-kL-w, was used to simulate inverted wings operating in ground effect. It was shown that that laminar and transitional flow states could be simulated easily inside a commercial solver, and that the model offered a substantial improvement over the classical fully-turbulent k-w SST in terms of both force coefficient prediction and surface-flow structures. This experiments and computational simulations described in this thesis show the Reynolds number sensitivity of, and importance of laminar phenomenon on, wings operating in ground effect. It has been shown that laminar boundary layers are an important aspect of the flow characteristics of wings in ground effect, at both full-scale and model-scale Reynolds numbers. As such, it is recommended that future studies incorporate laminar and transitional phenomena.Item Open Access Breaking the Mould of the Orthodox Approach to Security Sector Reform: A Case Study of Israel’s Civil-Military Relationship(2021-06) Westerman, I; Watters, BPost-conflict Security Sector Reform (SSR) is a complex and difficult task which offers few historical examples of success. The challenges that SSR encounters are compounded by the western liberal democratic origins of the majority of the civil-military relations (CMR) theory from which it draws. By their nature, these theories are ill-suited to most post-conflict scenarios. This thesis offers a new perspective on the problem by suggesting that the use of elements of other less orthodox, but nonetheless still democratic, models of CMR would help SSR programmers to develop more appropriate objectives. It further argues that the Israeli system of CMR is an example of one such model. Using a critical realist approach, the thesis presents a single case study to investigate the research question: How has Israel’s CMR evolved since the state was founded in 1948? It employs thematic analysis to evaluate data obtained from a series of semi-structured interviews conducted with influential Israeli elites. From this, three ‘Big Ideas’ are identified. If adopted, these could help to break the mould of the previously unfruitful, orthodox approaches to post-conflict SSR. They are: first, that culture and history must impact the design of all SSR programmes from the very start; second, that more flexibility must be shown regarding military involvement in defence policy-making; third, that if the benefits of more unorthodox approaches to SSR are to be realised, clear provision must also be made for the system to adapt over time. The lens of critical realism brings a fresh perspective to the hitherto well documented subject of Israel's civil-military relationship, and the development of a novel analytical framework (CIPMIS) contributes to the wider body of knowledge in this field. Most significantly, analysis of this unique interview dataset enables the Israeli experience, for the first time, to directly inform understanding of post-conflict SSR.Item Open Access Changes to the micro-architecture and material properties of the human clavicle and rib in ontogeny(2019-12) McGivern, Hannah L; Zioupos, Peter; Márquez-Grant, NicholasThe detrimental effects of ageing on the human skeleton are universally resonant. With increase in age, an increased fragility at the macroscopic scale is observed in bone, which is indicative of changes that occur at different levels within the heterogeneous and complex, hierarchical arrangement of this biological composite. In spite of that, a comprehensive understanding of ageing characteristics in the medial clavicle is largely missing from the literature. The seminal research currently available concerns developmental markers such as morphological alterations to shape and structure, which are capped at the point of skeletal maturity. Estimating age-at-death continues to be one of the most challenging responsibilities for forensic anthropologists when compiling a biological profile for unidentified skeletonised human remains (most especially following the maturation of the skeleton). The medial clavicle and sternal rib ends are fundamental to age estimation; the former is the last bone to fuse in the human skeleton making the development ideal for estimating age when the remainder of the skeleton has completed epiphyseal fusion, and the latter are easily accessible during routine autopsy. Current methods which utilise these skeletal sub-regions are primarily qualitative and rely on the expert interpretation of subjective traits which relate to broad and descriptive phase categories. There is a need to go beyond using morphological biomarkers currently employed in forensic anthropology. The introduction of new, quantitative techniques is therefore fundamental to addressing the following unanswered question: what significant, ontogenetic changes occur beyond the macro-scale which can be utilised for generating multivariate age prediction models for the clavicle and rib? In order to address this question, the primary research aim for this research was to characterise statistically significant (p0.7 to effectively predict age-at-death. This novel approach addresses disciplinary norms through the application of micro-computed tomography (µ-CT), nanoindentation and the combined diagnostic power of two thermo-analytical techniques (DSC-TGA) to elucidate agerelated changes in a sample of 161 cadaveric specimens from 58 donors at a scale beyond what has thus far been presented in the literature. Accordingly, a series of associated hypotheses were devised concerning the individual constituent parts, which altogether contribute to the physical manifestiations of age and form the complex arrangment of bone, using each of these techniques. The effect of the size of the sample has also been considered. The age range of the sample in question (12-59 years) focuses on a division of the age spectrum which has received less attention in previous studies, particularly in comparison to study groups which have primarily comprised of elderly individuals. Firstly, a non-destructive assessment of the morphometric characteristics of the trabecular bone located in the medial end of the clavicle was implemented using micro-computed tomography (µ-CT) to test for statistically signficant (p0.7 which is indicative of a strong model. iv Additionally, the value of adopting a multi-method system was illustrated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) which revealed the extent to which principal components (namely HVIT, EIT, percentage loss of organic weight [Or%] and final percentage weight of mineral phase [Ash%]) were contributing to clustering patterns associated with age. These findings explore the research hypothesis which concerns the identification of changes to clavicle and rib physiology and mechanical behaviour in ontogeny; details that will hold significant value in medico-legal cases for age-atdeath estimation. This research also addresses set objectives concerned with the development of easily reproducible and accurate methods of age-at-death estimation using the medial clavicle and sternal end of the sixth rib without specialist anthropological expertise. The results presented also contribute to basic knowledge of mechano-biology for micro- and nano-structures that influence fracture risk at the organ level, which is of interest to clinicians in orthopaedic biomechanics and is also vital to other sectors. For example, the automotive industry can use such data to establish whether age-related changes to the structure and material composition of these bones lessens the failure threshold and mechanical behaviour of the chest in vehicle collisions. This information in turn could also contribute to the improvememt of automotive safety designs.Item Open Access The characterisation and provenance of ammunition components(2018) Abdel-Karim, N; Shackel, J PThe objective was to create a comprehensive data set of analytical results relating to the physical construction and chemical composition of ammunition components; to be used to determine the provenance of ammunition. The study focusses on 7.62 x 39 mm ammunition due to its ubiquitous nature in crime and conflict zones around the world. Ammunition identification and classification currently relies heavily on the information provided on cartridge case headstamps and packaging. In the absence of this information, there is no definitive method to ascertain the potential origin of ammunition. The aim of this study was to examine the physical and chemical composition of ammunition components from different origins in an attempt to establish if the construction and elemental composition of these components could be used to differentiate between sources of ammunition. Initially, various physical and chemical techniques were employed to analyse samples of ammunition from known sources. Currently, there are 24 known countries and 42 known manufacturers who produced 7.62 x 39 mm ammunition (Ness and William, 2011). This study aimed to analyse a representative sample of 7.62 x 39 mm ammunition to determine if differentiation between the manufacturers is feasible. A further temporal study was explored to establish if differences in the materials and manufacturing techniques occurred in a single manufacturing plant over a period of time. A detailed analysis of ammunition components generated information pertaining to differences particular to each manufacturer’s ammunition. It is reported that there are sufficient distinguishing features between the 7.62 x 39 mm ammunition analysed, and can be said with a degree of certainty that a particular round of 7.62 x 39 mm ammunition could have originated from a particular manufacturer. This research was conducted with the ambition of creating a publication to be used by professionals and academics in relation to identification of ammunition origin. Working with Cranfield University to contribute to work conducted by national and international organisations it is presented as a database set; to be used as a reference where standard forensic techniques currently provide no information of the provenance ammunition origin. Promising results provide avenues for further research to be continued temporally or even into other calibres – ultimately comprising of a resource that is invaluable to many.Item Open Access CHIMES: An enhanced end-to-end Cranfield hyperspectral image modelling and evaluation system(2020-02) Zahidi, Usman A.; Yuen, Peter W. T.; James, David B.Hyperspectral remote sensing enables establishing semantics from an image by providing spectral details used for differentiating materials. The airborne/satellite setup for remote sensing are typically expensive in terms of time and cost-effectiveness. It is therefore important to predict performance of such systems as a precursor. Hyperspectral scene simulation is a technique which allows the detailed spatial and spectral information of a natural scene to be reconstructed without the need for expensive and time-consuming airborne/spaceborne image acquisition systems. It helps in predicting the potential performance of airborne/satellite systems, moreover, it enables varying atmospheric conditions, estimating degradation in sensor performance to provide better uncertainty analysis and traceability, performance analysis of data processing algorithms and counter-measures/camouflage assessment in military applications. Digital Imaging Remote Sensing Image Generation (DIRSIG) developed by Rochester Institute of Technology and Camoflauge Electro-Optic Simulator (CameoSim) by Lockheed Martin are the two earliest research and commercial products, respectively, that incorporate hyperspectral rendering for accurate physicsbased radiance estimation. Although CameoSim is a well-established Scene simulator, however it does not support volumetric scattering and localised adjacency model. DIRSIG has provided support form these features in newly developed version called DIRSIG5. Due to export control restriction it is typically not possible to access these simulators, hence motivates development of inhouse scene simulator. This thesis summarises the research which constitutes part of the deliverable under the DSTL R-Cloud project for the establishment of an in-house HSI scene simulator, which is known as the Cranfield Hyperspectral Image Modelling and Evaluation System (CHIMES). CHIMES is a physicsbased rendering enabled simulator and the main concept follows directly the radiative transfer (RT) big equation, with some components adopted from DIRSIG and CameoSim etc. The goal of the present research has been set and the work has been progressed in the following manner: • The establishment of CHIMES from scratch; • Validation of CHIMES through direct comparison with commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) simulator such as CameoSim (CS); • Enhancement of CHIMES over the COTS simulator (e.g. CS) to include automatic in-scene atmospheric parametrisation, localised adjacency-effect model and volumetric scattering to achieve a more realistic scene simulation particularly for the rugged terrain; • To propose methods on how difficult issues such as shadows can be mitigated in scene simulation. This thesis summarises the work performed as according to the above 4 objectives with main results as follows: • CHIMES has been shown to reproduce the scene simulation performed by a COTS simulator (e.g. CameoSim) under various atmospheric conditions. • An automatic atmosphere parameterisation search algorithm has been shown to be effective to allow the simulation of the scene without the need of repeated trial and error atmospheric parameter adjustments. • Two adjacency models: the Background One-Spectra Adjacency Effect Model (BOAEM) and the Texture-Spectra Incorporated Adjacency Effect Model (TIAEM) have been developed under this work. The BOAEM is somewhat similar to that adopted in CS with a distinctive feature of volumetric scattering, however, the TIAEM is a terrain dependence adjacency which is much more sophisticated. It has been shown that at high altitude scene, TIAEM performs better than the BOAEM by 6.0% and by 10.0% better than CameoSim particularly in the 2D geometric simulation, in terms of `1-norm error. In the lower altitude scene, BOAEM performs better than both TIAEM and CameoSim by 22.0% and 16%. In a 3D scene (i.e. terrain with Digital Elevation Model (DEM)) with sensor at lower altitude CameoSim error raises by 5 times compared to GT. BOAEM still performs better than TIAEM by a similar 22% `1-norm error. • A means for assessing the shadowed pixels of the scene has been proposed and the validation of the model requires more comprehensive ground truth (GT) data which will be performed in the future research. Most of the above results have been published in three journal papers as part of the contributions towards the HSI research communityItem Open Access Choose-ables, Sensing and Sense-making: A study of Orders of Choice(2020-01) Dodd, Lorraine; Massie, RuthThere has long been academic study into decision-making to look at different strategies that are used to select a course of action from a set of decision options. The subjects making these decisions, the decision-agents, tend to be objectively rational with selections made based on maximising expected utility or minimising probability of loss. There is, however, a lack of research into how the options for choice are settled upon in the first place. It is this topic of choice-making that is the focus for this research study, which covers the subjective nature of choices being ‘imagined deemed possible’ in the form of ‘choose-ables’ as related to what that subject might be sensing and understanding. Chooseables are a subject’s options for choice, given the nature of their sense of context and their felt conditions. In this respect, choose-ables are subjective and relative respectively. The main proposition is that any subject has an associated range and scope of choose-ables, and that these can be organised according to the nature of the choose-ables open to that subject. The research gap being addressed by this PhD study exists due to the lack of a formal theoretical framework to examine why and how a subject’s options for choice are settled upon by that subject. Therefore, the contribution made by this PhD by Published Works is an order of choice framework that has a two-fold application: first, the explanation of what might shape the nature and scope of a subject’s choose-ables; second, a way of formally appreciating and analysing the implications of those choose-ables for a subject’s sensing and sense-making; hence, potentially for ‘modelling’ the forming of their subjective potential for choice-making and any emergent behaviours. This thesis presents a seven-fold framework for orders of choice, applicable to a range of subjects; from agent-based algorithms and cells through to people, organisations and political institutions. A key assumption is that each subject makes choices according to a principle of discomfort avoidance. Subjective preferences, interests and needs relate to a subject’s scoping of their choose-ables, according to a subject’s sensing and sense-making of their circumstances. Preservation of a subject’s sense of comfort acts as a central concept of subjective ‘settling’, which governs the nature of the choose-ables according to where any subject is in relation to their context. The overarching research question is: From where might a subject’s choose-ables emerge; and how might these choose-ables moderate, or be moderated by, that subject’s sense-making and their focus of attention? The portfolio of seven published works covers the supporting theories and also describes the background experimental work that prompted the development of the linking of the two underlying theories: Catastrophe Theory and Cultural Theory. This thesis formalises the links between these two theories and Shackle’s (1976) work on choose-ables. The orders of choice are aligned and associated with other levels of capability, organisation, and adaptation; then developed into a nested framework based on Catastrophe models with further understanding drawn from other, related, theories about levels of capability and organisation, drawing on relational frameworks in Cultural Theory. The framework contributes to knowledge by providing a formal mathematical basis for a descriptive language that can be applied in order to understand and appreciate where any subject might be in terms of their choose-ables, their sensing and their sense-making, and to help to explain why. A significant conclusion is the centrality of a subject’s concept of value for their choice-making.Item Open Access Conceptualizing, defining, and modelling supply chain management : an objective oriented approach.(2022-08) Alkebaisi, Hussain K; Allen, Robby A.; Hameed, AmerAlthough it has been more than three decades since the term Supply Chain Management (SCM) was first introduced, there are still divergent views and different interpretations amongst scholars and practitioners about its meaning. The literature lacks consensus on a precise definition of SCM and presents a plethora of different perspectives. A unified conceptual or theoretical model has not yet been acknowledged, and the existing frameworks lack the call for a holistic model that encompasses the essence of the concept. With this disagreement on what SCM is, there are repeated calls to achieve consensus on a unified definition, a unified understanding, a unified conceptual model, and a unified framework of SCM. The argument in the literature is that achieving consensus among scholars and practitioners will improve research and practice and the SCM discipline. The literature revealed that the prevalent and the most recommended approach of conceptualising SCM is the process orientation. However, there is no evidence in the literature that an objective-oriented approach was investigated in resolving those theoretical issues, and neither has a Grounded Theory research method been applied to that end.Through an objective-orientated approach and applying the grounded theory method, it is found that the majority of the theory behind SCM is about managing business activities and achieving business goals through the communication, cooperation, collaboration, and integration within and across firms in a supply chain or network. The proposed name of the identified theory is ‘Business Relations Management Theory.’ The theory states that individuals, organisations, societies and nations achieve better performance and outcomes through communication, cooperation, collaboration, and integration. A literature-based thematic analysis showed that SCM is being used as a synonym for Supply Management, Business Relations Management (BRM), or a combination of both. Also, an assessment survey that included more than 200 managers and employees from different countries showed unclear or limited understanding of the identified theory and perspective of BRM. Accordingly, this research presents the theory and perspective of BRM and asserts that the term Supply Chain Management (SCM) should be replaced with Business Relations Management (BRM). SCM, as a term, limits the benefits of communication, cooperation, collaboration, and integration to a chain or network of firms and enterprises within the production sector. In contrast, the Business Relations Management (BRM) concept generalises the benefits to all sectors and all stakeholders, including the final customers, consumers, and services recipients. In addition, universities or business schools are advised to replace SCM with ‘Supply Management’ or another name that combines supply and demand management fields. A Feedback survey included a group of managers and employees from different sectors in Bahrain showed a high level of satisfaction and acceptance of the outcomes of this research, the researcher’s argument, and recommendations. The feedback survey outcomes led to the conclusion that the objective orientation was an effective approach to conceptualise SCM, and there is a probability of higher acceptance of the outcomes of this research and, consequently, achieving consensus among academics and practitioners.Item Open Access Crowdsourcing with Serious Games for Defence Procurement(2020-11) Oates, E P; Ringrose, T PHuman Factors Engineering within UK defence procurement relies on small numbers of users picked from small user populations to help develop and test human-computer interfaces for new defence equipment. The delivered equipment is only exposed to a full assessment through mass user involvement when in service, which is the most costly point of the procurement process at which to identify any shortcomings. A prototype Electronic Warfare system interface was used to illustrate proposed new procurement processes. A ‘Serious Game’ is defined as a computer-based game used for a business purpose, and the research began by building such a game to simulate the prototype interface, which was made available through a web browser to all defence personnel. The Serious Game was developed using Open Source coding techniques and internally Crowdsourced allowing the design of this defence equipment human-computer interface to be developed and tested through a wider than usual range of user perspectives. The aim was to show how end-user experience might be enhanced and procurement costs reduced by exposing defence equipment to a wide range of users ahead of the In-Service procurement phase. This project reports on technical aspects of web-based game design and implementation, the cultural and organisational structures that affect the Crowdsourcing, and the quantitative results from controlled experiments using the Serious Game. The results show that while Open Source coding engaged with the audience at a minimal level, Crowdsourcing a Serious Game has the potential to be effective in providing a measurable benefit to defence procurement.