School of Applied Sciences (SAS) (2006-July 2014)
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Item Open Access 3D advance mapping of soil properties(Cranfield University, 2012-07) Veronesi, Fabio; Mayr, T.; Corstanje, RonaldSoil is extremely important for providing food, biomass and raw materials, water and nutrient storage; supporting biodiversity and providing foundations for man-made structures. However, its health is threatened by human activities, which can greatly affect the potential of soils to fulfil their functions and, consequently, result in environmental, economic and social damage. These issues require the characterisation of the impact and spatial extent of the problems. This can be achieved through the creation of detailed and comprehensive soil maps that describe both the spatial and vertical variability of key soil properties. Detailed three-dimensional (3D) digital soil maps can be readily used and embedded into environmental models. Three-dimensional soil mapping is not a new concept. However, only with the recent development of more powerful computers has it become feasible to undertake such data processing. Common techniques to estimate soil properties in the three-dimensional space include geostatistical interpolation, or a combination of depth functions and geostatistics. However, these two methods are both partially flawed. Geostatistical interpolation and kriging in particular, estimate soil properties in unsampled locations using a weighted average of the nearby observations. In order to produce the best possible estimate, this form of interpolation minimises the variance of each weighted average, thus decreasing the standard deviation of the estimates, compared to the soil observations. This appears as a smoothing effect on the data and, as a consequence, kriging interpolation is not reliable when the dataset is not sampled with a sampling designs optimised for geostatistics. Depth function approaches, as they are generally applied in literature, implement a spline regression of the soil profile data that aims to better describe the changes of the soil properties with depth. Subsequently, the spline is resampled at determined depths and, for each of these depths, a bi-dimensional (2D) geostatistical interpolation is performed. Consequently, the 3D soil model is a combination of a series of bi-dimensional slices. This approach can effectively decrease or eliminate any smoothing issues, but the way in which the model is created, by combining several 2D horizontal slices, can potentially lead to erroneous estimations. The fact that the geostatistical interpolation is performed in 2D implies that an unsampled location is estimated only by considering values at the same depth, thus excluding the vertical variability from the mapping, and potentially undermining the accuracy of the method. For these reasons, the literature review identified a clear need for developing, a new method for accurately estimating soil properties in 3D – the target of this research, The method studied in this thesis explores the concept of soil specific depth functions, which are simple mathematical equations, chosen for their ability to describe the general profile pattern of a soil dataset. This way, fitting the depth function to a particular sample becomes a diagnostic tool. If the pattern shown in a particular soil profile is dissimilar to the average pattern described by the depth function, it means that in that region there are localised changes in the soil profiles, and these can be identified from the goodness of fit of the function. This way, areas where soil properties have a homogeneous profile pattern can be easily identified and the depth function can be changed accordingly. The application of this new mapping technique is based on the geostatistical interpolation of the depth function coefficients across the study area. Subsequently, the equation is solved for each interpolated location to create a 3D lattice of soil properties estimations. For this way of mapping, this new methodology was denoted as top-down mapping method. The methodology was assessed through three case studies, where the top-down mapping method was developed, tested, and validated. Three datasets of diverse soil properties and at different spatial extents were selected. The results were validated primarily using cross-validation and, when possible, by comparing the estimates with independently sampled datasets (independent validation). In addition, the results were compared with estimates obtained using established literature methods, such as 3D kriging interpolation and the spline approach, in order to define some basic rule of application. The results indicate that the top-down mapping method can be used in circumstances where the soil profiles present a pattern that can be described by a function with maximum three coefficients. If this condition is met, as it was with key soil properties during the research, the top-down mapping method can be used for obtaining reliable estimates at different spatial extents.Item Open Access 3D characterisation of tool wear whilst diamond turning silicon(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2006-07-24T00:00:00Z) Durazo-Cardenas, Isidro; Shore, Paul; Luo, X.; Jacklin, T.; Impey, Susan A.; Cox, A.Nanometrically smooth infrared silicon optics can be manufactured by the diamond turning process. Due to its relatively low density, silicon is an ideal optical material for weight sensitive infrared (IR) applications. However, rapid diamond tool edge degradation and the effect on the achieved surface have prevented significant exploitation. With the aim of developing a process model to optimise the diamond turning of silicon optics, a series of experimental trials were devised using two ultra-precision diamond turning machines. Single crystal silicon specimens (1 1 1) were repeatedly machined using diamond tools of the same specification until the onset of surface brittle fracture. Two cutting fluids were tested. The cutting forces were monitored and the wear morphology of the tool edge was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The most significant result showed the performance of one particular tool was consistently superior when compared with other diamond tools of the same specification. This remarkable tool performance resulted in doubling the cutting distance exhibited by the other diamond tools. Another significant result was associated with coolant type. In all cases, tool life was prolonged by as much as 300% by using a specific fluid type. Further testing led to the development of a novel method for assessing the progression of diamond tool wear. In this technique, the diamond tools gradual recession profile is measured by performing a series of plunging cuts. Tool shape changes used in conjunction with flank wear SEM measurements enable the calculation of the volumetric tool wear rate.Item Open Access A3 thinking approach to support lean product and process development(Cranfield University, 2013-03) Mohd Saad, Norhairin; Al-Ashaab, Ahmed; Shehab, EssamThis research project aims to develop a novel A3 thinking approach to support knowledge driven design that aids the generation of decision making within a Lean Product and Process Development (LeanPPD) environment. This research comprises the development of a new A3 template as a technique of problem solving in product design, the adoption of a reflection practice structured in a new A3 template for knowledge capture and sharing, and the generation of the process of using the A3 thinking approach for effective implementation. Providing useful knowledge as a design reference to generate decision making at the initial stages of product development in product design helps the designers to prevent recurrence of the same problem, eliminate design mistakes and enhance design decision. In order to achieve a novel A3 thinking approach, a research methodology consisting of four phases was developed. The first phase synthesises the A3 best practice through literature and documentation reviews. The gap analysis and results from the reviews have identified several problem-solving approaches and learning cycles that have to be considered in the research. The second phase is to evaluate the approaches and their impacts and applications in product design. In order to complete this, several research methods are selected and performed (e.g. focus group and semistructured interview) within the collaborative companies. The third phase is to develop the A3 thinking approach by utilising the LAMDA learning cycle, developing a new A3 template or so-called A3LAMDA, adopting the reflection practice and generating the process of using the new A3 thinking approach. Finally, the validation of the new A3 thinking approach through industrial case studies and expert judgements have been performed. This approach has been implemented in the automotive sector and was applied to four industrial case studies and six A3LAMDA reports were collected. As a result of the findings of this research, the utilisation of the A3 thinking approach aided the generation of knowledge driven design in product design by integrating the knowledge management capabilities; knowledge creation, capture and sharing.Item Open Access Accumulation, transport and potential treatment of surface sediment on car parks with channel drains(Cranfield University, 2015-11) Barlow, James Vincent; Harris, Jim A.; Hess, Tim M.Urban pollutants have been identified as a significant source of environmental pollution, posing a risk to human health, the environment, and are toxic to flora and fauna. Highways are recognised as one of the key sources of pollution, from both vehicles, and surrounding infrastructure. A number of studies have investigated accumulation of sediment and the associated pollutants on highways, and the runoff generated as a result of rainfall. Car parks share many potential contributory sources of pollutants with highways, but there is a lack of studies regarding car parks, despite them being identified as a significant percentage of urban land use. A series of experiments were undertaken in order to develop an understanding of the characteristics of car park sediment. The physical and chemical characteristics of sediment were analysed at different stages throughout the drainage system. Firstly on the sediment accumulated on car park surfaces, followed by that mobilised and transported into a channel drain during simulated rainfall events. Finally, potential treatment of pollutants within sediment in a channel was quantified. The physical and chemical characteristics of car park sediment was shown to be similar during both the accumulation (build-up) and wash-off stages, suggesting that the accumulated sediment is generally mobilised and transported to the channel drain (wash-off). Furthermore, both the physical and chemical characteristics of the sediment were shown to be similar to those found on highways, thorough the build-up and wash-off phases. Finally, potential treatment of organic pollutants (PAH) by biodegradation was demonstrated, but not comprehensively proved.Item Open Access Accurate measurement of the piezoelectric coefficient of thin films by eliminating the substrate bending effect using spatial scanning laser vibrometry(Institute of Physics, 2010-06-30T00:00:00Z) Leighton, Glenn J. T.; Huang, ZhaorongOne of the major difficulties in measuring the piezoelectric coefficient d(33,f) for thin films is the elimination of the contribution from substrate bending. We show by theoretical analysis and experimental measurements that by bonding thin film piezoelectric samples to a substantial holder, the substrate bending can be minimized to a negligible level. Once the substrate bending can be effectively eliminated, single-beam laser scanning vibrometry can be used to measure the precise strain distribution of a piezoelectric thin film under converse actuation. A significant strain increase toward the inside edge of the top electrode (assuming a fully covered bottom electrode) and a corresponding strain peak in the opposite direction just outside the electrode edge were observed. These peaks were found to increase with the increasing Poisson's ratio and transverse piezoelectric coefficient of the piezoelectric thin film. This is due to the non-continuity of the electric field at the edge of the top electrode, which leads to the concentration of shear stress and electric field in the vicinity of the electrode edge. The measured d(33,f) was found to depend not only on the material properties such as the electromechanical coefficients of the piezoelectric thin films and elastic coefficients of the thin film and the substrate, but also on the geometry factors such as the thickness of the piezoelectric films, the dimensions of the electrode, and also the thickness of the substrate.Item Open Access Achieving equilibrium status and sustainable landfill - the holy grail?(The Waste Conference Ltd, 2004-09) Hall, D. H.; Gronow, Jan R.; Smith, Richard; Blakey, N.This paper presents the results of a research contract jointly funded by the Environment Agency and ESART examining the residues of likely post-Landfill Directive waste streams that will need to go to landfill and the time taken to achieve sufficient stabilisation such that management controls can be removed. The first part of the project has identified a number of processes that are likely to be adopted by the waste management industry in order to meet the biodegradable waste diversion targets. Both leachate quality and landfill gas generation data has been assessed for each residue stream. Forward modelling has been undertaken on these data using LandSim2.5 within GoldSim to assess the likely period of management needed in order to achieve equilibrium status.Item Open Access Acoustic monitoring of engine fuel injection based on adaptive filtering techniques(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2010-12-31T00:00:00Z) Albarbar, A.; Gu, F.; Ball, A. D.; Starr, Andrew G.Diesel engines injection process is essential for optimum operation to maintain the design power and torque requirements and to satisfy stricter emissions legislations. In general this process is highly dependent upon the injection pump and fuel injector health. However, extracting such information about the injector condition using needle movements or vibration measurements without affecting its operation is very difficult. It is also very difficult to extract such information using direct air-borne acoustic measurements.In this work adaptive filtering techniques are employed to enhance diesel fuel injector needle impact excitations contained within the air-borne acoustic signals. Those signals are remotely measured by a condenser microphone located 25cm away from the injector head, band pass filtered and processed in a personal computer using MatLab. Different injection pressures examined were 250, 240, 230, 220 and 210 bars and fuel injector needle opening and closing impacts in each case were thus revealed in the time-frequency domain using the Wigner-Ville distribution (WVD) technique. The energy of 7-15kHz frequency bands was found to vary according to the injection pressure. The developed enhancement scheme parameters are determined and its consistency in extracting and enhancing signal to noise ratio of injector signatures is examined using simulation and real measured signals; this allows much better condition monitoring information extraction.Item Open Access Acquisition and sharing of innovative manufacturing knowledge for preliminary design(Cranfield University, 2009) Mountney, Sara; Gao, James X.; Roy, RajkumarThis study investigates the identification, acquisition and sharing of innovative manufacturing knowledge for the preliminary design of complex mechanical components. Such components need to satisfy multiple, often conflicting design and performance requirements. Some degree of innovation may be required, involving the development of new manufacturing processes. The innovative nature of this manufacturing knowledge makes it difficult to define, codify and share, especially during preliminary design, where this can present significant risks in the design process. Current methods of knowledge sharing do not account for the immature nature of innovative manufacturing knowledge and the combined explicit and tacit elements needed to express it. A flexible interpretive research study with inductive and hypothesis testing elements was undertaken to explore this novel knowledge management problem. During the inductive phase, two data collection activities were undertaken to investigate the manufacturing knowledge required for the preliminary design of gas turbine engines. Using a data driven approach, the main findings which emerged were: the need to include an assessment of the maturity of the design process; the need to use a range of tacit and explicit knowledge to effectively share this and the need to manage knowledge across different domain boundaries. A conceptual framework of the findings was used to develop a hypothesis of knowledge requirements for preliminary design. For the hypothesis testing phase, a systematic methodology to identify, acquire and share innovative manufacturing knowledge for preliminary design was developed from the knowledge requirements. This approach allowed both explicit and tacit knowledge sharing. An evaluation of the methodology took place using three different industrial cases, each with a different component / manufacturing process. The evaluations demonstrated that using the range of knowledge types for transferring knowledge was effective for the specific cases studied and confirmed the hypothesis developed.Item Open Access Adaptation to climate change: legal challenges for protected areas(Igitur, Utrecht Publishing and Archiving Services, 2009-07-01T00:00:00Z) Cliquet, A.; Backes, C.; Harris, Jim A.; Howsam, PeterClimate change will cause further loss of biodiversity. As negative effects are already taking place, adaptive measures are required to protect biodiversity from the effects of climate change. The EU policy on climate change and biodiversity aims at improving a coherent ecological network in order to have more resilient ecosystems and to provide for connectivity outside core areas. The existing legal framework, the Birds and Habitats Directives, can enable adaptive approaches, by establishing and managing the Natura 2000 network and providing for connectivity measures. However, policy and law so far have mainly been aimed at conserving the status quo of habitats and species within core areas. The question is whether a legal requirement to protect certain species in certain places makes sense when species and even ecosystems are migrating due to climate change. Instead, efforts must be increased to protect ecosystem functions, goods and services from the negative effects of climate change, and to facilitate the ecological restoration of new areas. Even more effort is needed for the implementation of connectivity. If existing legislation proves too weak to face these challenges, a new ‘Ecosystem Framework Directive’ might provide the necessary legal impeItem Open Access An adaptive control system for off-line programming in robotic gas metal arc welding.(Cranfield University, 1997-10) Carvalho, G. C.; McMaster, R.The aim of this work was to develop an integration concept for using off-line programming in robotic gas metal arc welding of thin sheet steel. Off line -welding parameter optimization and on-line monitoring and adaptive control of process stability and torch-to-workpiece relative distance were used to ensure weld consistency. The concept developed included four main aspects: a) the use of a CAD system to design the workpiece; b) the use of a welding off-line programming system to design the welds, generate the welding parameters and to extract geometrical information from the CAD models to generate a robot program; c) the use of a graphical simulation system to simulate the robot movements; and d) the use of monitoring and adaptive control for ensuring that the required weld quality is delivered. The CAD system was chosen to be the basis for the development of the welding off-line programming system. The generation of optimized welding parameters was based on empirical welding models and the robot program generation was based on on-line programming experience. A PC based monitoring and control system was developed to provide on-line position and process control. The position control was carried out by pre-weld adjusting the initial position of the workpiece using a wire touch sensor and on-line adjusting the torch-to-workpiece distance by moving the workpiece based on the information provided by a through-the-arc sensor. The process control was carried out by automatically trimming the welding voltage such that the most stable process could be obtained. The stability of the process was estimated by using previously established monitoring indices. It was assumed that the off-line welding parameter optimization would provide the deposition rate necessary to produce the required weld quality. Successful welding control trials were performed showing the effectiveness of the adaptive control strategy. An off-line programming system has been developed and the programs generated have been tested by simulation. This showed that simulated positioning errors, produced by deliberate wrong path data, were successfully compensated for by the control system developed in this work.Item Open Access Addressing real-time control problems in complex environments using dynamic multi-objective evolutionary approaches(Cranfield University, 2011-10) Butans, Jevgenijs; Tiwari, Ashutosh; Hughes, Evan J.The demand for increased automation of industrial processes generates control problems that are dynamic, multi-objective and noisy at the same time. The primary hypothesis underlying this research is that dynamic evolutionary methods could be used to address dynamic control problems where con icting control criteria are necessary. The aim of this research is to develop a framework for on-line optimisation of dynamic problems that is capable of a) representing problems in a quantitative way, b) identifying optimal solutions using multi-objective evolutionary algorithms, and c) automatically selecting an optimal solution among alternatives. A literature review identi es key problems in the area of dynamic multi-objective optimisation, discusses the on-line decision making aspect, analyses existing Multi- Objective Evolutionary Algorithms (MOEA) applications and identi es research gap. Dynamic evolutionary multi-objective search and on-line a posteriori decision maker are integrated into an evolutionary multi-objective controller that uses an internal process model to evaluate the tness of solutions. Using a benchmark multi-objective optimisation problem, the MOEA ability to track the moving optima is examined with di erent parameter values, namely, length of pre-execution, frequency of change, length of prediction interval and static mutation rate. A dynamic MOEA with restricted elitism is suggested for noisy environments.To address the on-line decision making aspect of the dynamic multi-objective optimisation, a novel method for constructing game trees for real-valued multiobjective problems is presented. A novel decision making algorithm based on game trees is proposed along with a baseline random decision maker. The proposed evolutionary multi-objective controller is systematically analysed using an inverted pendulum problem and its performance is compared to Proportional{ Integral{Derivative (PID) and nonlinear Model Predictive Control (MPC) approaches. Finally, the proposed control approach is integrated into a multi-agent framework for coordinated control of multiple entities and validated using a case study of a tra c scheduling problem.Item Open Access Adopting lean manufacturing techniques in small and medium manufacturing enterprises(Cranfield University, 2010-10) Danielli, Shaun Pau; Nelder, G.Small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) form a significant part of national and regional economic prosperity. They strengthen the capacity to generate employment and wealth for national and regional benefit. The importance of SMEs to the prosperity of a society and their contribution to new job creation, coupled with the recognition that they seem to underperform highlights the need to assist this group of companies improve their performance. During the course of this research the author investigated whether SME manufacturing organisations had opportunities to improve productivity and performance, conducted a literature review of the application of cellular one piece flow and then tested a model to implement cellular one piece flow with three SME manufacturing organisations. This thesis establishes that SME manufacturing organisations do have opportunities to improve productivity and performance through cellular one piece flow.Item Open Access The adoption of low-cost low head drip irrigation in small-scale farms in Kenya(Cranfield University, 2003-09) Kalamwa, Kulecho I.; Weatherhead, E. KeithPopulation growth and development will increase the demands on water resources in Africa, and hence there is a need for agriculture to use water efficiently. Drip irrigation is widely promoted for water saving at the farm level. Moreover, it is easily adaptable to small-scale farming common in Africa. The use of low-cost drip irrigation, especially the low-cost medium head (LCMH) drip system, is growing rapidly in some Asian countries. However, the uptake of low-cost drip irrigation in general has been slow in Kenya, which has scarce water for irrigation. Using the theory of the adoption and diffusion of innovation, this research aimed to identify the factors affecting the rate of adoption and continued use of low-cost low head (LCLH) drip irrigation in Kenya. Following a review of experiences of low-cost drip irrigation from India and sub-Saharan Africa, primary information was obtained using informal interviews in a two-phase survey. A total of eighty-six respondents were interviewed in the two phases. Phase 1 examined the factors influencing the adoption of LCLH drip irrigation. The key respondents in phase 1 were irrigation farmers (drip and non-drip), government officials, irrigation industry representatives, and staff of non¬governmental organisations (NGOs). Phase 2 examined the factors affecting discontinuation of LCLH drip irrigation. In phase 2 only LCLH drip irrigation farmers and those who had discontinued using it were interviewed While the low-cost medium head drip irrigation was the dominant irrigation in India, the low-cost low head drip irrigation, gravity fed and in a kit form, was found to be the most common system on smallholder farms in Kenya. The results showed that for the rate of appropriate low-cost drip irrigation uptake to increase in Kenya, it was important to remove political and institutional inhibiting factors dominant during the implementation stages of the innovation-decision process. It was necessary for farmers to have a need to save irrigation water, reliable irrigation water resources, effective water user organisations, efficient marketing facilities, efficient technical support services, relevant cultural background, and good security for the kit. The LCLH drip irrigation kit appeared to have more maintenance problems than the alternative irrigation methods. Furthermore, government policies and extension services as well as irrigation industry efforts appeared limited. It appeared that the technology would most likely be adopted where farmers have a reliable but limited (in volume) water supply.In some situations, the LCLH drip technology, and particularly the smaller (bucket) kits, did not appear to be appropriate and should not be promoted. For other conditions, recommendations were made for helping to overcome the problems identified in the study.The Rogers innovation-decision model was shown to lack sufficient consideration of external factors. A revised model was proposed to suit the conditions of small-scale irrigation technology adoption in less developed countries.Item Open Access Advanced Bearing System for Ultra Precision Plastic Electronics Production Systems(Cranfield University, 2014-09) Zhao, Gang; Shore, Paul; Morantz, PaulThe aims of this MSc research project are to investigate the application of aluminium for the main components of an ultra-precision spindle defined for use in R2R production systems and to produce a reel to reel rotary aluminium hydrostatic bearing system of high accuracy to meet the demand of manufacturing the flexible displays with an effective production capability for this special kind of film-based product. The original concept design was already finished to manufacture the bearing components and the objective of this project was to test the functionality of this new hydrostatic bearing system. Firstly, theoretical were performed to work out the output responses, including temperature rise, flow rate, load capacity etc., of the hydrostatic bearing system under different input design parameters, including supply pressure, fluid viscosity, the rotational speed etc. Then ANSYS software was used to build a FEA model to simulate the actual working conditions of the hydrostatic bearing system and to obtain the theoretical output parameters, especially the deflection conditions of the bearing shaft. Finally the experimental validation tests were conducted to verify the actual output responses to check correlation with the modelled results.Item Open Access An advanced decision process for capacity expansion in manufacturing networks(Cranfield University, 2008-04) Julka, Nirupam; Baines, Tim; Tjahjono, BennyManufacturing companies develop multiple production sites for various reasons from cheaper labour to access to local markets. Expansion of capacity in such a manufacturing network is a complex decision and requires consideration of multiple factors. Traditionally, industrial decision makers attempt to minimise the cost of expansion and, usually as an afterthought, consider soft factors like manpower availability and logistics connectivity. This approach has gained acceptance as the research community has focused on developing better mathematical representations of the problem rather than investigate the larger decision process. A review of the literature revealed that all existing processes for multi-site capacity expansion decision fail in this way. Therefore, this research sets out to fulfil the needs of practitioners by developing a more complete process for the capacity expansion decision in multi-site manufacturing networks. The research programme consists of five parts. In the first part an extensive literature review is conducted to identify the state-of-the-art in capacity expansion decision processes. Then, in the second part, a representative process is formed and industrially tested. This generates the specifications for an advanced decision process which addresses the shortcomings of the present body of knowledge and is developed in the third part of the research. In the fourth part the advanced decision process is applied in an industrial setting to validate its effectiveness. Finally, in the fifth part the advanced decision process is refined and illustrated. The outcome of this research is an improved decision making capability. The advanced decision process has been both validated and appreciated by industrial practitioners. Specifically the contribution to knowledge is an advanced decision process for capacity expansion in multi-site manufacturing network.Item Open Access Advanced oxidation processes for wastewater reuse - removal of micropollutants(Cranfield University, 2013-04) James, Christopher P.; Judd, Simon J.The removal of micropollutants (MPs) from secondary municipal wastewater by an advanced oxidation process (AOP) based on UV irradiation combined with hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2) has been assessed through pilot-scale experiments incorporating microfiltration (MF) and reverse osmosis (RO). Tests employed low concentrations of a range of emerging contaminants of concern, and the water quality varied by blending of waters from different sources. Under optimum H2O2 and lamp power conditions, the process achieved >99% removal of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) from all waters. Pesticide removal, in particular metaldehyde, atrazine and 2, 4 5-T, was dependent on water transmittance (UVT), and levels of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and other hydroxyl radical (HO.) scavengers. Chloroform, a trihalomethane (THM), was not readily degraded (<10% removal in either stream), as was TOC removal. Further analysis of metaldehyde removal identified UVT, reaction time, and H2O2 dose to be influential parameters in determining degradation as a function of UV dose. In comparison, the impact of H2O2 dose and UVT was negligible on NDMA degradation; removal increased from 89 to >98% on increasing the UV dose from 200 to 680 mJ cm-2 from the MF permeate. Nitrite by-products were observed at elevated levels, promoted by low pH and high UV doses. An operational cost assessment revealed energy consumption to account for 65% with lamp replacement contributing 25%. A comparison of three unit process sequences, based on MF, RO, AOP and activated carbon (AC), revealed MF-RO-AOP to be the most cost effective provided management of the RO concentrate stream incurs no significant cost. Results demonstrated AOPs to satisfactorily reduce levels of the more challenging recalcitrant MPs to meet stringent water quality standards for wastewater reuse, but that practical limitations exist and the cost penalty is significant.Item Open Access Advances in Gas Metal Arc Welding and Application to Corrosion Resistant Alloy Pipes(Cranfield University, 2010-03) da Costa Pépe, Nuno Vasco; Yapp, DavidAccording to recent estimations, the construction of pipelines will continue to increase during the next thirty years, in particular as a result of oil and gas discoveries in remote locations. Significant advances in welding technology during the last ten years have potential to provide improvements in productivity, quality and structural integrity of pipe girth welds. In this thesis, several new processes Lincoln STT, Lincoln RapidArc, Fronius CMT, Fronius CMT-P and Kemppi FastROOT have been compared the first time to the GMAW-P to understand how these new waveforms operate for pipe welding. The process setting parameters have been analysed to understand their effect on metal transfer and arc stability control, and on bead shape characteristics. Although all waveforms present similar burn-off ratios, individual waveforms differ considerably, and especially the arc voltage waveform. This leads to considerable differences in the mechanism of metal transfer and the stability of the processes under similar experimental conditions. Understanding of these new waveforms in terms of the effect of setting parameters in the mechanism of metal transfer, process stability and melting phenomena provides a basis for assessing the potential of these processes for a range of applications, and in particular application to CRA pipe root welding Since the arc energy is the overall energy delivered from the power source at the contact tip of the torch, and part of that energy is not absorbed by the workpiece, research was performed to measure the process efficiency associated with some of these waveforms and process setting conditions. The study led to a better understanding of the potential errors in calculating process efficiency. The results obtained show that all the short-circuiting waveforms analysed (i.e. CMT, STT and FastRoot) had a similar process efficiency of 90±3%, while pulse spray waveforms (GMAW-P, CMT-P and RapidArc) are characterized by lower process efficiency, approximately 78±3%. The application of these waveforms to the welding a narrow groove pipe with a “J” groove design was investigated. These analyses were focused on the variation of bead shape characteristics and welding quality performance based on the analysis of the conditions that result in lack of penetration and top bead defects, such as lack of side wall fusion or undercutting. It was observed that RapidArc and CMT-P are able to satisfy the quality requirements, i.e. full penetration and absence of defects for the specific conditions described in this thesis. High welding speeds (up to 1m/min) were achieved with these processes, four times the typical speed 0.25m/min. Finally, the shielding gas plays an important role in terms of quality and weld bead performance. This led to an optimization of the shielding gas composition used, based on mixtures of carbon dioxide, argon and helium. Statistical modelling was undertaken to optimize the shielding gas mixtures using RapidArc and CMT-P waveforms. In parallel, a new purging shielding gas device was designed to achieve a weld root free of oxidation.Item Open Access The aeration of clay soils in cricket(Cranfield University, 2012-05) Parsons, Simon A.; James, Iain; Bartlett, MarkIn the game of cricket good ball-surface interactions are essential and require a hard, flat surface. To achieve this the clay loam soil comprising the pitch is compressed and compacted using a smooth wheeled roller, which when combined with the drying action of the grass plant roots, causing the clay minerals within the soil to shrink, creates a high bulk density, hard surface on which to play. High bulk density soils present difficult growing conditions for plants due to high mechanical resistance, reduced hydraulic conductivity and gas exchange capability. The hydraulic properties and gas exchange capability are linked to the connectivity and tortuosity of the pore network as well as pore size; all of which are diminished by compaction of the soil. Aeration is currently utilised as a tool to ameliorate the negative effects of compaction on the growing environment of the plant roots. Little research exists that describes the actions of aeration in clay loam soils. The current guidelines for aeration and the proof for its efficacy in cricket are based almost entirely on anecdotal evidence. A diverse methodology was used to meet the project objectives. This diversity reflects the broad nature of the expectations of the cricket groundsmen from aeration of pitches as reflected in a survey of current practise undertaken during the project. Novel experimental methods were used to examine the effect of aeration on soil atmospheres in the laboratory and under field conditions. The laboratory experiment revealed that vertically-operated solid tines did significantly increase the rate of diffusion through the soil, however in the field, this rate increase was only apparent after significant rainfall. New methods utilising time-lapse photography and automated image analysis quantified the magnitude of swelling in a range of soils in response to increasing water content over time to a high degree of accuracy. A similar method was employed to examine the shrinkage of the same soils as the water content was reduced, examining not only the magnitude but also the cracking patterns formed. These experiments aimed to examine the soils natural ability to recover from compaction over time. The soils natural ability to recover from compaction through shrink-swell and freeze-thaw was evident in the field trials. These field trials examined five diverse aeration treatments to examine the physical and biological effects they have on the soil. The field trials showed generally small and inconsistent effects on the physical properties of the soil from aeration treatments when compared to the natural processes of shrink-swell and freeze-thaw. One consistent effect from aeration was a 2% reduction in moisture content in one particular soil type. Aeration was found to have no effect on soil microbial biomass nor on soil organic matter content. In a pot experiment examining the effect of aeration in a range of soil densities the total root mass was not diminished by increasing soil density but became increasingly concentrated upwards in the profile. Aeration was found to slightly increase the root mass but only in the highest bulk density treatment (1.90 g cm-3) at depths below 75 mm. A set of guidelines were developed based on the evidence garnered from the experiments with a clearly defined decision process for choosing the most suitable equipment for the treatment aim. It is hoped that these guidelines will provide an informative reference for current and future groundsmen to ensure the optimum use of often scarce and valuable resources when choosing an aeration treatment.Item Open Access Agricultural challenges today and in the future: the beneficial role of agroecology(Cranfield University, 2009-09) Keay, Gordon; Villa, RaffaellaInterest in agroecology is growing as evidence mounts that conventional agricultural methods are unsustainable, degrading the resource base (e.g. soil, water, crop diversity, biodiversity etc.) on which they depend. Alternative ways to produce foods that build soil fertility, protect ecosystems, conserve biodiversity and reduce energy inputs, provide the possibility of long-term productivity and ecological sustainability. The International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD) have supported agroecology as a key set of solutions for world agriculture, which synergistically tackle development, sustainability and conservation goals. This study presents indicators to measure the sustainability of an agricultural practice which, placed in a hierarchical pyramid, demonstrates their importance and interconnected relationships. A comparative evaluation of agroecological and conventional systems is shown to assess the effects of management practices on the indicators. Agroecological approaches differ from conventional ones as they aim to sustain the soil and ecosystems by reducing synthetic inputs and creating alternative natural processes to maintain soil fertility and manage pests. Soil fertility is the essential indicator of sustainable agriculture, it was shown to improve in agroecological systems, indicated through increased soil microbial biomass (60% higher than in conventional agriculture) and earthworm abundance (up to 88% higher than in conventional agriculture). The loss of biodiversity due to current intensive farming practices is an indicator of unsustainability. In the agroecological systems biodiversity was shown to be comparatively higher. The diversity of bird and beetle species were recorded to be 50% and 38% more abundant respectively, and bat activity was shown to be 60% higher. These are bio-indicators of sustainable agriculture. The reduced chemical inputs led to an average of 50% less energy used on the agroecological systems. The resulting effects on yields showed great variation. One long term trial showed a 20% yield reduction in the agroecological system. Yet in times of drought, when advanced cropping systems were implemented, in developing countries yields were shown to be comparable, often significantly higher. This study provides solid evidence that the world’s future food security lies in the hands of sustainable agricultural practices. Agroecology demonstrates techniques that can be used towards reaching this vital goal.Item Open Access Agricultural technology and land use futures: The UK case(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2009-12-31T00:00:00Z) Burgess, Paul J.; Morris, JoeThis paper explores how agricultural technology has interacted with recent land use in the UK and how it might do so in the next 50 years. From 1960 to 1985, farmers successfully used technology to increase the output of crop and animal products per unit of land and particularly of labour. This reduced the number of people employed in agriculture, and promoted larger and more specialised farm enterprises. Between 1985 and 2006, food prices were relatively low, and although labour productivity continued to increase, land productivity remained relatively static. However during this period, farmers started to address the effects of agriculture on reduced water quality and habitat loss. For established agricultural products, technological innovation tends to have an incremental effect, working through genetic improvement, the removal of abiotic and biotic stress (e.g. crop nutrition and protection, irrigation and drainage, and animal nutrition, health and housing) and the substitution of labour. Whereas the first two processes tend to be scale-neutral, the substitution of labour is usually easiest to achieve on larger farms. Other key areas for technological innovation include addressing air, soil and water quality, biodiversity, waste reduction, and information management. Over the next 50 years, large step-changes in land use arising from agricultural technology are predicted to arise from the development of new markets for agricultural products. A strong bioenergy sector will strengthen the links between crop commodity and energy prices and will have a major effect on future land use. Climate change and the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions will alter the relative profitability of crop and animal production systems. Lastly, increased public awareness of the links between food, health and the environment could substantially shift the demand for specific agricultural products. Continual improvements in agricultural technology are pivotal to providing society with the flexibility to balance the challenges of improving human well-being with the management of the planet’s ecosystem. Increased technological innovation increases the probability that agricultural land can be used for other purposes, but the exact relationship is dependent on trade and environmental policies. The large external effects of agriculture mean that decisions regarding the adoption of future technologies should be taken by farmers working with other stakeholders. © 2009 Queen’s Printer and Controller of HMSO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rig