Browsing by Author "Wood, David"
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Item Open Access The dynamic response of dense 3 dimensionally printed polylactic acid(Springer, 2019-05-22) Agu, Henry; Hameed, Amer; Appleby-Thomas, Gareth J.; Wood, DavidPolylactic acid (PLA) is commonly used as a feedstock material for commercial 3D printing. As components manufactured from such material become more commonplace, it is inevitable that some of the resultant systems will be exposed to high strain-rate/impact events during their design-life (for example, components being dropped or even involved in a high-speed crash). To this end, understanding the shock properties of polylactic acid, in its role as a major raw material for 3D printed components, is of particular importance. In this work, printed samples of PLA were deformed by one-dimensional shock waves generated via the plate impact technique, allowing determination of both the Hugoniot Equation of State (EOS) and shear strength of the material. Both linear and non-linear EOS forms were considered in the US-Up plane, with the best-fit found to take the general form US=1.28+3.06−1.09Up2" role="presentation" style="display: inline-table; line-height: normal; letter-spacing: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border-width: 0px; border-style: initial; position: relative;">US=1.28+3.06−1.09U2pUS=1.28+3.06−1.09Up2 in the Us−Up" role="presentation" style="display: inline-table; line-height: normal; letter-spacing: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border-width: 0px; border-style: initial; position: relative;">Us−UpUs−Up plane, consistent with other polymers. Use of lateral Manganin gauges embedded in the material flow allowed consideration of lateral stress evolution at impact pressures ranging from 0.3 to 4.0 GPa. Shear strength was observed to increase with impact stress, however, with minimal strengthening behind the shock front. Deviation of the measured stress from the predicted elastic measurement (corresponding to the PLA’s Hugoniot Elastic Limit) was observed at longitudinal stress of 0.90 ± 0.05 GPa, within range of polymeric materials of similar characteristics—the first time this important parameter has been measured for PLA. As a result, this material characterisation will allow numerical modellers to accurately predict the structural response of PLA-based components/structures against high strain rates such as impacts or drops.Item Open Access Push-out force and impulse measurement of seven types of small arms ammunition with three different surface states(AIP, 2019-11-18) Muster, Michael; Hameed, Amer; Wood, David; Wasmer, KilianThis study analyzes the influence of lubrication treatments on the force absorbed by the breech bolt called push-out force. The results are of high interest for weapon-safety and durability studies, especially when it comes to weapon maintenance. A barrel-ammunition combination represents an expanding vessel under high pressure. The pressure rises from ambient up to 420 MPa in less than a millisecond. During such a highly dynamic process, purely static equations, describing the problem of the casing push-out force, may not be applied. Besides the dynamic behavior, the surface properties and geometry also play an important role. To investigate the push-out force, a measurement system based on a force washer was built. This system was validated using a crusher method and finite element analysis. The impulse was calculated using the data of the measured force to obtain additional information about the force-time properties of the push-out behavior. Untreated ammunition and two lubrication systems: “ice layer” and “oil lubricated,” as well as seven different ammunition sizes ranging from 5.56 to 12.7 mm were considered. The response was the force absorbed by the bolt while the cartridge provides rear obturation to the combustion gases. It was found that both the casing geometry and its treatments have a significant influence on the push-out force.Item Open Access Ricochet quantification using a multiple sensor approach(Elsevier, 2020-02-20) Muster, Michael; Hameed, Amer; Wood, DavidThis study investigates the ricochet behaviour of three different small-arms projectile types using a novel ricochet measuring device. The results can be used to estimate the danger potential of ricochets on shooting ranges.A ricochet is the change of direction and velocity of a projectile after impacting an oblique surface. This impact produces strong vibrations on a rigid plate. During this impact, flexural waves travel radially outwards from the point of impact. These waves are used to determine the properties of the impactor with accelerometers situated on the target surface. With the use of two measurement plates, one can produce a ricochet and detect the velocity at the same time. Accelerometers are suitable for accurate momentum measurements of single impacts. However, depending upon strike velocity and the impact angle, a ricochet can separate in multiple fragments after being deflected. From the operational safety perspective, these fragments need to be detected, as well. The approach of a coupled sensor concept was chosen to solve this problem. Thermographic sensors were additionally used to visualise the heat which is produced after penetrating a rubber layer pasted in front of the steel target plate. With this approach one was able to detect the position of impact. The investigations showed that the measurement system performance is better with a multiple sensor design, which includes accelerometers for the velocity, impact strength and partly the position measurement, while the thermographic sensor was used for the position measurement and partly the momentum measurement. The investigated ammunition showed plausible fragmentation behaviour, and the results can already be used to estimate the danger potential of different ammunition types. Frangible projectiles fragment to small particles already after being deflected under a small angle. However, Full Metal Jacket projectiles with or without a steel core do not fragment under angles which are less than 5°. The objective of the paper is to demonstrate the possibility of measuring the complex ricochet mechanics of small projectiles using standard accelerometers with the adequate signal processing approach. This measuring system is supported by an off the shelf thermographic camera.Item Open Access The variance on the shock response of a carbon fibre composite due to the orientation of the weave(Springer, 2018-05-22) Wood, David; Appleby-Thomas, Gareth J.; Hameed, Amer; Barnes, N. R.; Hughes, A.; Hazell, P. J.Three different orientations of a tape-wrapped carbon fibre composite with phenolic resin matrix (abbreviated to TWCP) have been investigated under one-dimensional shock loading. This has been achieved via a single-stage gas gun, with manganin gauges as the diagnostic tool. The orientations of TWCP studied in this paper were 25°, 45° and 90°, with respect to the impact face. The shock response of these orientations, for this material, has been obtained (the Hugoniot equation of state). These results have been contrasted with previously reported literature data for the same material at different orientations (0° and 20°). It was found that orientation had minimal effect on the behaviour of this composite under shock. The exception to this was the 90° orientation which exhibited an elastic precursor at particle velocities of less than 0.65 mm µs−1; where the shock velocity was equivalent to the elastic sound speed of the material.