CERES :: Browsing by Author "Kelliher, Clare"

Browsing by Author "Kelliher, Clare"

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Open Access
All of work? All of life? Reconceptualising work‐life balance for the 21st century
(Wiley, 2018-09-26) Kelliher, Clare; Richardson, Julia; Boiarintseva, Galina
This paper argues that the study of work‐life balance to date has, in the main, adopted a restricted conception of both “work” and “life”, which does not take account of recent developments in life worlds, working arrangements and employment relationships. “Life” has hitherto been viewed as largely comprising caring activities for dependent children, whereas “work” has been premised largely on a traditional model of work, characterised by full‐time, permanent employment with one employer and a conventional understanding of what work involves. This means that extant research and theory only provides a partial view of the work‐life needs and experiences of the workforce. In the paper, we propose extending conceptions of both work and life to incorporate different life worlds and social groups and different working arrangements and employment relationships.
Open Access
Enforced remote working and the work-life interface during lockdown
(Emerald, 2020-09-17) Anderson, Deirdre A.; Kelliher, Clare
Purpose This paper aims to consider enforced working from home in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and how it may differ from working from home through choice. In particular, the authors discuss how lockdown may be affecting work-family arrangements. Design/methodology/approach This is a thought piece. Findings The paper briefly examines the extant research on remote working. It is argued that as many of the (beneficial) outcomes found for both employees and employers are associated with feelings of greater autonomy and gratitude on the part of employees for being able to exercise choice over their working arrangements, these outcomes may not be found where working from home is required of employees. The authors contend that women, and mothers in particular, have had little choice in relation to when work has taken place, and how much work has been done. Practical implications The authors urge employers to consider the positive and negative outcomes of emerging evidence as they review their flexible working policies. They call for a widespread review of childcare provision in supporting women and men in the labour market. Originality/value The authors explore this unexpected context of the pandemic and highlight the need for research which examines these different circumstances.
Open Access
An examination of the influences on reward mix determination : oberservations from the UK financial services industry
(Cranfield University, 2011) Chapman, Jonathan; Kelliher, Clare
During 2007-2010 significant dislocation occurred in the financial services sector with governments having to come to the aid of a large number of financial institutions. Throughout this crisis much political, media and practitioner interest was given to reward structures within the industry and, in particular, the proportion, or mix, of different rewards provided in overall compensation. This thesis examines influences on the determination of reward mix in the UK financial services sector. Three theoretical perspectives are examined – agency, institutional and resource dependency – as potential explanations. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with reward executives from 30 financial services firms, alongside perspectives garnered from ten reward consultants. These interviews identify the strength of institutional pressures on firms to conform to an agreed reward mix norm, largely driven by historical reward patterns and reinforced by strong employee expectations that they will receive this norm. However, firms are still seen to exercise strategic choice, influenced by the extent to which they have the desire and capability to resist institutional pressures. The research also identifies which firms are likely to differentiate their reward mix from that established in the sector. The findings provide a contribution to an under-researched area in a key sector of the economy. They present both an important account of the pressures facing reward mix determination in the financial services sector at this time, and a theoretically informed approach to understanding those pressures through the presentation of a unified theory of reward mix determination.
Open Access
An examination of the relationship between frontline employees' perceptions of people management practices and their prosocial service behaviours: a case study of an employee-owned organization
(Cranfield University, 2015) Bardhan Correia, Debarpita; Kelliher, Clare
With a growing body of literature examining HR systems’ influence on organizational performance outcomes, there has been a plea for research that examines the underlying mechanisms that facilitate this in a service setting. This study adopts the notion of people management which incorporates the management of HR implementation and line managers’ leadership behaviour in its investigation of how HR affects performance. This study, by examining how frontline employees’ perception of people management practices affects individual level prosocial service behaviours, and by using a qualitative approach in data collection and analysis, offers an explanation of the underlying mechanisms in the causal chain. Furthermore, the setting of this research in an employee-owned organization affords a context- rich account of how HR systems affect individual level performance in a service setting. Thirty one semi-structured interviews were conducted, of which twenty three were conducted with frontline employees to elicit how their experiences of people management practices affected their display of prosocial service behaviours. Eight semi-structured interviews were arranged with frontline managers to offer an alternate perspective to data gathered from the employees. The research identifies bundles of practices, comprising both “employment” and “work practices” as instrumental in employees’ display of prosocial service behaviours. The results confirm the AMO framework as being a suitable explanation of mediating mechanisms in the HR-performance chain, whilst not only confirming the presence of a few existing intervening influences but also identifying novel factors not previously studied within the HR-performance discussion. It also demonstrates that adopting multiple theoretical perspectives in investigating HR-performance relationships offers a more comprehensive picture. Finally, the research confirms the role of the line manager as a protagonist within the HR- performance discussion whilst also demonstrating the significance of co-workers. The ownership context emerges as important in this enquiry – specifically work atmosphere and relationships – in influencing employees’ service behaviour.
Open Access
Exploratory study of the antecedents of psychological contract breach
(Cranfield University, 2008-08) Gallagher, Tom; Kelliher, Clare
This research presents a systematic review of literature focusing on the Human Resource Management concept of the Psychological Contract between an employee and their organisation. An initial overview of research on the broader topic is outlined to identify key themes in the field and to identify areas of research to be reviewed in greater detail. The major themes explored at this stage are the basic definition of the concept, the contents of the psychological contract, viewing the concept as a mental model or schema, the current methods used in existing research, how the agreement can be breached, the link to various employee outcomes and how the concept can be managed. The systematic review methodology is then set out to identify the causes or antecedents of breach, the differing ontological perspectives on the psychological contract concept and existing research which integrates the psychological contract with the related concept of employee engagement. 34 studies are examined and results are presented in the form of a narrative synthesis. Results suggest that the empirical evidence base of antecedents to breach is limited and that numerous potential antecedents to breach have not been fully tested due to limitations in existing research designs. Secondly, a new ontological perspective based on the Critical Realist perspective of Harré (2002) is proposed to develop existing work on the basic definition of the psychological contract concept. Finally, the lack of existing work which integrates both the psychological contract and employee engagement is highlighted with a recommendation for additional research on the ontology of the engagement concept.
Open Access
Exploring cultural influences on employee interpretations of universal values messages in multinational organisations: a business discourse approach
(Cranfield University, 2010-05) Lazidou, Domna; Kelliher, Clare
This thesis focuses on an increasingly popular, but little studied organisational communication practice, the deployment of corporate values messages as a means of ‘framing’ reality, and of achieving ‘shared meaning’ in multicultural workplaces, and asks if such practices, based on ethnocentric approaches to business communication, are likely to be effective in culturally diverse contexts. Using a business discourse perspective, and approaching culture as dynamic systems of meaning, the study presents a rich case of values communication in a European multinational, by exploring in detail the meanings employees derive from the organisational values messages, and the relationship between these meanings and the cultural context in which they are constructed. Findings point to two main conclusions: Firstly, that universal values messages do generate multiple employee meanings, but these do not derive from distinct cultural memberships, such as ethnicity or nationality, but rather from the complex interaction between message texts, organisational cultural frames and discourses and cultural identities constructed during interpretation by message users. This finding offers support for a non-essentialist approach to culture in intercultural business communication research, which locates culture not in distinct external influences on communicative action, but in a complex and holistic ‘interculturality’ - the process and outcomes of interacting dynamic cultures, cultural texts, and the communicative action itself.Secondly, findings show that, if the message texts trigger shared cultural frames, shared meanings will also emerge, despite apparent cultural diversity among message readers. This finding challenges the view of much current intercultural and cross-cultural communication scholarship, that the cultural diversity of business audiences is likely to render universal communication practices in multinational businesses ineffective. Instead, it suggests that explicit universal values texts in multinational organisations may indeed contribute to the generation of shared meaning, although this will be mediated by existing, implicit, cultural ‘texts’.
Open Access
Fit for Self-Employment? An extended person-environment fit approach to understand the work-life interface of self-employed workers
(e-Content Management / Cambridge University Press (CUP): HSS Journals - No Cambridge Open, 2016-10-04) de Jager, W.; Kelliher, Clare; Peters, P.; Bloome, R.; Sakamoto, Y.
The recent growth in self-employment has sparked scholarly interest in why individuals choose and remain in self-employment. Yet, relatively little is known about how self-employed workers enact their daily lives and what this means for their work–life interface. Self-employment is often presented as a means to enhance life choice and as enabling work and nonwork activities to be combined more satisfactorily. However, extant evidence on how self-employment is experienced is mixed, with some studies reporting long and irregular working hours and high levels of stress. Furthermore, the way in which self-employment is experienced may be influenced by national context – economic, institutional and cultural factors. In this paper, we develop a multi-level model which extends existing work on the Person–Environment Fit by incorporating factors relevant to self-employment. The model assists us to understand how contextual factors create both opportunities and tensions which impact the work–life interface of self-employed workers.
Open Access
Flexible working, individual performance and employee attitudes: comparing formal and informal arrangements
(Wiley, 2016-12-27) De Menezes, Lilian M.; Kelliher, Clare
In the context of a wider trend to individualize HRM, this paper examines the relationship between flexible working arrangements and individual performance. Drawing on a range of theories, it examines potential indirect effects on employee performance via job satisfaction and organizational commitment and analyses whether these relationships vary according to whether the arrangement was set up through a formal process, or negotiated informally between the employee and their line manager. Extant research has tended to focus on formal arrangements, however, informal arrangements are widespread and may better accommodate work-life preferences, thereby potentially fostering more positive attitudes from employees. Survey data from 2617 employees in four large organizations with well-established flexible working policies are analysed. Results from structural equation models show average positive indirect effects from informal, but also negative direct effects, from formal flexible working. When two forms of flexible working amenable to being set up by both formal and informal means are examined separately: formal arrangements for flexibility over working hours are found to be negatively associated with performance, but also a source of greater job satisfaction; informal remote working arrangements have positive indirect effects via organizational commitment and job satisfaction on worker performance.
Open Access
For Better or for Worse? An Analysis of how Flexible Working Practices Influence Employees' Perceptions of Job Quality
(Taylor & Francis, 2008-03-01T00:00:00Z) Kelliher, Clare; Anderson, Deirdre A.
This paper is concerned with examining the relationship between flexible working practices and employee perceptions of job quality. In recent years a growing number of employers in the UK have introduced flexible working options for employees in response to increasing concerns over work-life balance and the desire to be seen as an ‘employer of choice’. At the same time there has been considerable policy debate amongst the European Union (EU) over job quality and the need to create not only more, but better jobs. It might be expected that since flexible working affords a degree of choice to employees, it would impact positively on their perceptions of job quality. However, to date few studies have explicitly examined how flexible working can contribute to job quality. Where studies have examined outcomes relevant to aspects of job quality, the evidence is somewhat inconclusive. The research reported in this paper was designed to explore how lived experiences of flexible working have influenced employees’ perceptions of a range of job quality dimensions. The findings show a generally strong, positive relationship between flexible working and perceptions of job quality, but also that there are perceived costs to job quality, particularly in relation to longer term opportunities for development and progression, suggesting that the relationship is more co
Open Access
High commitment performance management: the roles of justice and trust
(Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2011-01-03T00:00:00Z) Farndale, Elaine; Hope Hailey, Veronica; Kelliher, Clare
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between employees' perceptions of a particular subsystem of HRM practices (performance management) and their commitment to the organisation. In addition, the study seeks to examine the mechanisms by which these perceptions translate into employee attitudes and behaviours. Design/methodology/approach – A total of 524 questionnaire responses were collected from four organisations in the UK. Findings – The findings show that the link between employee experiences of high commitment performance management (HCPM) practices and their level of commitment is strongly mediated by related perceptions of organisational justice. In addition, the level of employee trust in the organisation is a significant moderator. Research limitations/implications – This is a cross-sectional study based on self-report data, which limits the reliability of the findings. The findings may also be specific to a particular context. However, the results by company support their generalisability. Practical implications – The findings lead one to believe that it is essential to observe the actual experiences of HCPM practices and outcomes at employee level, and to consider the broader organisational context, if one is to understand their effects on performance. Originality/value – When exploring the impact of high commitment work practices on firm performance, little attention has been paid to the employee perspective: employees ultimately are the recipients of an organisation's HRM practices, and as such their perceptions of these practices affect their attitudes and behaviour in th
Open Access
Influences on employers’ provision of part-time working: an evidence review
(Cranfield School of Management, 2021-07-14) Gascoigne, Charlotte; Kelliher, Clare
Part-time working accounts for one in five jobs across Europe, and one in four in the UK. However, part-time working from the employer perspective has been under-researched. The employer perspective is important because currently, part-time jobs are often poor quality jobs, and because some full-time workers would prefer to work part-time but feel that the option is not open to them. Better quality part-time jobs across a broader range of types of work could improve labour market participation, social inclusion and progression for certain disadvantaged demographics, which in turn will maximise skills and productivity. Part-time working is defined in relation to a full-time norm, but part-time jobs are not uniform: part-time working may be designed to meet employer needs or workers’ work-life needs; it may be high-quality or low-quality; and it may vary from one day a week to almost full-time. Influences on employers’ provision of part-time working may operate at the national, sectoral, occupational or organisational level. Within organisations, provision may vary depending on the nature of the work and the attitudes of line managers and co-workers. National legislation and cultural expectations provide the context within which employers make their decisions about the provision of part-time working: the prevalence of part-time working across Europe varies from 48% in the Netherlands to less than 10% in many eastern European nations. This context may affect employers in several ways. First, it may affect employer policy – not just the legal rights of part-time workers, but the cultural expectations about ‘the right thing to do’ for demographic groups such as parents and carers. Secondly, it may influence line managers’ views on how to implement employer policy; and thirdly it may affect workers’ preferred working hours, which in turn affect employers’ provision of part-time working. Sectoral and occupational context also influence employer decisions about the provision of part-time working: there is wide variation across sectors and occupations, with much higher prevalence in service sectors and in low-paid, female-dominated occupations in the UK. However, there is insufficient evidence to assess how the nature of the work, the people doing the work, the skills and gender balance in the sector, and the economic position of each sector or occupation contribute to the variable provision of part-time working. At the organisational level, employers, and line managers, must balance the costs of part-time working against the need to attract and retain workers. There are quasi-fixed costs such as recruitment and training, which rise with the number of employees, rather than hours worked, and costs associated with the adaptation of working practices for part-time employees, such as team communication and the coordination of work. There are two principal advantages for employers: using part-time working to match supply and demand for labour during extended operating hours and peak periods, and, where organisational success depends upon the knowledge and talents of the workforce (human capital), using part-time working to attract and retain workers. The perceived productivity of part-time working is also part of the calculation. The Covid-19 pandemic has had a major impact on employer attitudes to flexible working, particularly homeworking. At the same time, the flexible furlough scheme has provided a natural experiment in part-time working. Although the use of short-time working schemes during economic downturns is well established in other developed economies, their impact on longer-term part-time working has received little research attention, possibly because part-time working is often considered from the perspective of workers’ reasons for working part-time, while short-time working schemes are largely involuntary for workers. The redesign of work to facilitate ‘part-furlough, part-working’ may have provided opportunities for managerial and organisational learning: the next stage of this project is to research any changes in employers’ perspectives on the feasibility of part-time working in different types of work.
Open Access
Inside the HR and Performance Black Box: how line managers use their people management discretion to influence individual first line employee performance outcomes
(2016-10) Hughes, Paul Allan W.; Kelliher, Clare
This study examines how front line managers use their discretion to influence first line employee performance outcomes while simultaneously meeting their responsibilities for HRM practice enactment. This addresses an academic literature gap as well as providing insight to aid the understanding between line managers and HR functions. The study is a holistic case study set within single function inside a commercial multinational organisation carried out with multiple levels of analysis. It is comprised of confidential primary data collection and triangulation interviews with 11 line managers from above and below average performing teams, 23 of their direct reports and 2 representatives from the HR function. Organisation documentation, reports and performance data were also examined. The study identified the discretionary practices used by line managers to influence employee performance outcomes alongside those they used for enacting their HRM practice responsibilities, while variations in discretionary practice usage between above and below average line managers helped explain differences in employee performance outcomes. Further research is needed to determine whether this is a causal relationship. The study also found new forms of HRM practice enactment carried out by front line managers extending our understanding on how this is carried out in organisations. Further variations in front line manager HRM practice enactment were not found to as related to employee performance outcome differences questioning that lack of compliance with HRM practices leads to poorer employee performance outcomes. There was limited overlap between the discretionary practices found and LMX theory suggesting a limited utility as a method for examining front line manager discretion in this context. The study also offers a practical model using CIMO-logic to help provide those in organisations better understanding between front line managers and the HRM practices they have responsibilities, with potential to build better interactions between front line managers and those in HRM functions. The findings extend our existing theory, suggesting more complex and dynamic approaches are used by some front line managers than previously thought with resultant implications for further research and practice.
Open Access
Making flexibility more i-deal: advancing work-life equality collectively
(SAGE, 2022-06-15) Kossek, Ellen E.; Kelliher, Clare
Current research on negotiated individualized flexible work arrangements focuses on highly paid, skilled professional workers. We refer to this as “flexibility through privilege,” the ability to obtain “flexibility I-deals,” due to high labor market power. Yet as work-life tensions grow across occupations globally, most individuals need increased access to flexibility. As the COVID-19 pandemic illuminated, work-life equality, the ability of workers to have equal access to, opportunity to use, and benefit from flexible working arrangements is a rising form of job inequality. We examine how existing flexibility i-deals can be reconceptualized more broadly to include collectively bargained arrangements across many occupations, and flexible working forms. Our essay advances understanding by (1) broadening notions of the typical employee and occupation involved; (2) expanding negotiation processes beyond an organizational sphere of control; (3) identifying new forms of negotiated flexibility such as control over work-life boundaries and technological availability; and (4) addressing not only employer-employee mutual benefits, but larger societal interests concurrent with new tensions and unintended consequences of mainstreamed implementation. We propose the term “collective flexibility” as the collective right of workers to customize their work schedule, place, workload, boundaries, connectivity, and employment mode with their employer and other stakeholders to benefit employers, employees, and society. We offer a future research agenda. Expanding how we frame and study what a flexibility i-deal is with a collective approach regarding how they are accessed, negotiated, maintained, and who they serve may enhance their potential as a lever for social change to advance economic, social, and health employment rights.
Open Access
A new way of working
(2013-03-01T00:00:00Z) Kelliher, Clare
Open Access
"Now you see them, now you don't" Impact of flexible work arrangements on intra-workgroup relations
(Cranfield University, 2013-08) Thorgeirsdottir, Thora; Kelliher, Clare
Interest in flexible work arrangements has proliferated in the last years, fuelled by technological advancements that allow people to work from anywhere at any time. This systematic literature review explores the impact of flexibility in time and place of work on intra-group relations and subsequent effects on group-level outcomes. Findings suggest that flexibility in place of work has positive effects on employee-supervisor relationships but negative effects on co-worker relationships. Although teleworkers remain well connected to their co-workers and overall workgroup communication does not appear to change, informal socialisation processes are affected. Knowledge sharing and creation is subsequently challenged. Furthermore, managers of mixed workgroups face issues of fairness and justice as well as challenges of creating and maintaining group cohesion when some of their employees are not always present. However, little is known of how flexibility in time of work impacts intra-group relations and group outcomes from groups containing flexible workers have not been explored. This paper therefore identifies significant gaps in the literature and presents opportunities for further research.
Open Access
Out of reach out of touch? The impact of flexible work arrangement use on collaboration within teams
(2017-08) Thorgeirsdottir, Thora; Kelliher, Clare
Organisations are faced with a growing interest in flexible work arrangements that enable employees to control where, when and for how long they work and need to find ways to adapt and integrate these practices into work routines and processes. Because these arrangements reduce employees’ facetime at the office, doubts remain regarding their impact on collaboration within teams. In this thesis I explore the impact of the use of part-time work, telework and flexible working hours on collaboration within teams and the contextual features that explain this relationship. Seven case studies were conducted in software development teams in three organisations in The Netherlands and Belgium. Findings suggest that telework, part-time work and flexible working hours impact on collaboration within teams because of reduced passive facetime – passive presence of team members at the office without necessarily engaging in interactions with each other. Passive facetime was interpreted as availability to others and an enabler to collaboration. A theoretical framework is put forth outlining six sets of contextual features that impact on this relationship. At the team-level, these included skill differentiation, task characteristics (task complexity and goal clarity), temporal characteristics (temporal stability and task urgency) and structural characteristics (regular face-to-face meetings, amount of absence, predictability of absence and synchronisation of presence). At the individual level, proactive behaviours were found to have an impact. Finally, the whole framework is nested in and dependent on environmental characteristics, in particular the organisational setting. This thesis contributes to theory by outlining the double-faceted role of passive facetime in the relationship between FWA use and collaboration, by delineating how structural characteristics can provide teams with sufficient passive facetime, and by presenting a framework explaining the influence of FWA use on collaboration and the features that explain how and when this happens.
Open Access
Part-time working arrangements for managers and professionals: a process approach
(Cranfield University, 2014-07) Gascoigne, Charlotte; Kelliher, Clare
This thesis concerns the relatively recent phenomenon of part-time managers and professionals. The focus is the part-time working arrangement (PTWA) and specifically the process by which it emerges and develops, building on existing literature on working-hours preferences, the role of the organization in part-time working and alternative work organization for temporal flexibility. Two large private-sector organizations, each operating in the UK and the Netherlands, provided four different research sites for narrative interviews with 39 part-time managers and professionals. The key contribution to knowledge is to identify the process of developing a PTWA as a combination of the formal negotiation of a flexibility task i-deal and an informal process of job crafting. In a situation of high constraint – where the individual’s goals conflict with organizational norms and expectations – the tensions between ‘being part-time’ and ‘being professional’ necessitated identity work at each stage, as individuals constructed a ‘provisional self’ which in turn enclosed each stage of the development of the PTWA. The four stages were: first, evaluation of alternative options, including postponing the transition to part- time until more appropriate circumstances arise; secondly, preparation of the individual business case for part-time; thirdly, formal negotiation of a flexibility task i-deal; and finally an informal, unauthorized adaptation of the arrangement over time. Collaborative crafting of working practices (predictability, substitutability, knowledge management) provided greater opportunities for adaptation than individual activities. This study’s contribution to theory in the nascent field of part-time managers and professionals is a process model which suggests how three sets of discourses act as generative mechanisms at each stage of the emergence and development of the PTWA, creating or destroying ‘action spaces’. These discourses are: the perceived ‘nature’ of managerial and professional work, the perception of part-time as a personal lifestyle choice, and the understanding of part-timers as either ‘other’ or the ‘new normal’.
Open Access
Reflecting the changing world of work? A critique of existing survey measures and a proposal for capturing new ways of working
(SAGE, 2022-10-28) Lott, Yvonne; Kelliher, Clare; Chung, Heejung
In recent decades we have seen significant and varied changes in the world of work. Most prominent among these is the diminishing prevalence of the standard employment relationship. These changes challenge traditional notions of what constitute ‘employment’, ‘employers’, ‘employees’, the ‘workplace’ and the ‘working day’. Many current survey instruments are still based on the concept of the standard employment relationship, however. This article illustrates some limitations of existing conceptualisations and definitions of flexible work arrangements and of the instruments used to measure them in major surveys. It also suggests ways of tackling these limitations. The aim of highlighting potential limitations of existing survey instruments is to enable data users to be more reflective about what the results actually do and do not report, and to encourage survey designers to modify existing instruments and develop new instruments to better capture contemporary realities, including multiple jobholding and internet and platform work.
Open Access
Search strategy for the Evidence review for the project: The future of part-time working: the impact of flexible furlough?
(Cranfield University, 2021-07-13 11:18) Gascoigne, Charlotte; Kelliher, Clare
Search strategy for the Evidence Review for the ESRC-funded project 'The Coronavirus Job Retention Scheme and employer perceptions of part-time working: the implications for economic recovery and future working'.
Open Access
Strain, loss of time, or even gain? A systematic review of technology-based work extending and its ambiguous impact on wellbeing, considering its frequency and duration
(Frontiers, 2023-07-05) Schöllbauer, Julia; Hartner-Tiefenthaler, Martina; Kelliher, Clare
Especially in knowledge-intensive professions, workers engage in work-related communication and access digital work content outside of working hours. Scientific research on technology-based work extending has flourished in recent decades, but yielded inconclusive results about its relationship with workers' wellbeing and focused on different temporal characteristics of the behavior. Consequently, in this article, we address the question of whether different temporal characteristics of technology-based work extending, such as the frequency and duration of the behaviour, may have different consequences for workers’ wellbeing. In the course of a systematic literature review, we analysed 78 empirical studies published between 2007 and 2021 that investigate the relationship between the self-rated frequency and the self-rated duration of work extending behaviours and 14 wellbeing indicators. Whereas most studies examined the frequency of work extending behaviours and its consequences, only 19 studies examinded the effects of its duration. Based on our findings, we propose three effects: The strain effect of frequent work extending, the gain effect of sustained work extending, and the loss-of-private-time effect inherent to work extending and independent from its frequency and duration. Our findings not only provide in-depth information on a widespread contemporary behaviour and its psychological implications, we also reveal research gaps and shed light on behaviours associated with role transitions and thus contribute to boundary theory.