Browsing by Author "James, Iain"
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Item Open Access The aeration of clay soils in cricket(Cranfield University, 2012-05) Parsons, Simon A.; James, Iain; Bartlett, MarkIn the game of cricket good ball-surface interactions are essential and require a hard, flat surface. To achieve this the clay loam soil comprising the pitch is compressed and compacted using a smooth wheeled roller, which when combined with the drying action of the grass plant roots, causing the clay minerals within the soil to shrink, creates a high bulk density, hard surface on which to play. High bulk density soils present difficult growing conditions for plants due to high mechanical resistance, reduced hydraulic conductivity and gas exchange capability. The hydraulic properties and gas exchange capability are linked to the connectivity and tortuosity of the pore network as well as pore size; all of which are diminished by compaction of the soil. Aeration is currently utilised as a tool to ameliorate the negative effects of compaction on the growing environment of the plant roots. Little research exists that describes the actions of aeration in clay loam soils. The current guidelines for aeration and the proof for its efficacy in cricket are based almost entirely on anecdotal evidence. A diverse methodology was used to meet the project objectives. This diversity reflects the broad nature of the expectations of the cricket groundsmen from aeration of pitches as reflected in a survey of current practise undertaken during the project. Novel experimental methods were used to examine the effect of aeration on soil atmospheres in the laboratory and under field conditions. The laboratory experiment revealed that vertically-operated solid tines did significantly increase the rate of diffusion through the soil, however in the field, this rate increase was only apparent after significant rainfall. New methods utilising time-lapse photography and automated image analysis quantified the magnitude of swelling in a range of soils in response to increasing water content over time to a high degree of accuracy. A similar method was employed to examine the shrinkage of the same soils as the water content was reduced, examining not only the magnitude but also the cracking patterns formed. These experiments aimed to examine the soils natural ability to recover from compaction over time. The soils natural ability to recover from compaction through shrink-swell and freeze-thaw was evident in the field trials. These field trials examined five diverse aeration treatments to examine the physical and biological effects they have on the soil. The field trials showed generally small and inconsistent effects on the physical properties of the soil from aeration treatments when compared to the natural processes of shrink-swell and freeze-thaw. One consistent effect from aeration was a 2% reduction in moisture content in one particular soil type. Aeration was found to have no effect on soil microbial biomass nor on soil organic matter content. In a pot experiment examining the effect of aeration in a range of soil densities the total root mass was not diminished by increasing soil density but became increasingly concentrated upwards in the profile. Aeration was found to slightly increase the root mass but only in the highest bulk density treatment (1.90 g cm-3) at depths below 75 mm. A set of guidelines were developed based on the evidence garnered from the experiments with a clearly defined decision process for choosing the most suitable equipment for the treatment aim. It is hoped that these guidelines will provide an informative reference for current and future groundsmen to ensure the optimum use of often scarce and valuable resources when choosing an aeration treatment.Item Open Access The ecology and control of earthworms on golf courses(Cranfield University, 2006-12) Bartlett, Mark D.; Ritz, K.; Harris, Jim A.; James, IainEarthworm casts on golf courses affect the playability of the turf and can potentially damage mowing equipment. Traditionally this problem has been limited using chemical controls. It is estimated that 0.6% of the total UK land surface is occupied by golf courses, therefore, the land management strategies which green keepers adopt with respect to the application of chemicals has a major environmental impact. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the ecology and potential control of earthworm casting in golf turf in environmentally sustainable ways. A quadrat survey of earthworm casts was conducted over two years at five golf courses in Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, UK. Using generalized linear models and forward multiple stepwise regression, an internally validated predictive model of earthworm casting activity was constructed. Annual activity on surfaces was predicted using five physicochemical parameters of which C: N and total inorganic nitrogen were the most important. Environmental parameters were also used to predict monthly earthworm activity, with evapotranspiration and rainfall representing the most significant variation. ' Mustard extraction surveys were used to investigate species diversity and community structure of earthworms. Four dominant species were identified (Aporrectodea rosea, Lunibricus rubellus, Aporrectodea longa and Lumbricus terrestris). It is likely that A. longa and L. terrestris, the two must abundant anecic forms, cause the greatest problems to green keepers as these are the largest of the four earthworm species. The microbial community of soil represents the earthworm's primary food source. An analysis of the microbial community size (using chloroform-extraction) and community structure (using phospholipid fatty acid [PLFA] analysis) showed that different surfaces found on golf courses supported significantly distinct and consistent microbial communities. Differences in population size and structure were evident at different depths through all golf course soil profiles investigated. Individual surface types were comparable, irrespective of geographical location. Therefore different surfaces and depths through the soil profile on golf courses represent different earthworm habitats. An investigation of the effects of different construction techniques and materials used in the golf industry on the rate of earthworm cast formation was made. This showed no effect of construction on the vertical distribution of earthworms, but the rate of casting increased on the sand dominated surfaces. It is proposed that this is due to the lower calorific value that this soil represents to the earthworms. This knowledge was applied in an earthworm cast mitigation experiment, reducing casting rates by stimulating the size of the microbial community with glucose solution. Control through physical exclusion of earthworms to the surface using a buried mesh was also trialled and significantly reduced earthworm casts, however no causal mechanism could be elucidated. This study has advanced the understanding of earthworm ecology on golf courses, deriving mechanistic understandings of this system as a whole. This will lead to a more environmentally sustainable approach to the control of earthworms on golf courses.Item Open Access Evaluation of factors affecting the quality of compost made by smallholder farmers in Malawi(Cranfield University, 2007-02) Nalivata, Patson Cleopus; James, Iain; Ritz, K.In Malawian agriculture, the use of compost as a soil amendment has received much attention over the last few decades. Despite this, little is known about the commonly practiced composting systems in Malawi and their potential in mitigating soil fertility problems experienced by smallholder farmers. This study characterized the Changu (turned and watered regularly) and Chimato (covered with mud and static) systems and investigated optimum conditions required for effective composting. It further investigated nutrient release characteristics of the composts from these systems and their impact on maize crop establishment. Replicated compost heaps were formed from wheat (Triticum aestivum) straw and grass /clover (Lolium perenne/Trifolium repens) (in the UK) and maize (Zea mays L.) straw and green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) residue (in Malawi) using the Changu and Chimato systems. Four initial C:N ratios of 20:1, 25:1, 30:1 and 60:1 were studied in the UK whereas two initial C:N ratios of 20:1 and 30:1, chopped into two lengths (5 or 10 cm) were used in Malawi. All the treatments were set in a randomized complete block design and the composting experiments ran for 112 days in the UK study and for 77 days in Malawi. Incubation-mineralization studies using the resultant composts were run for 42 days and 84 days for UK and Malawi respectively, followed by a maize establishment study run for 25 days. The Changu systems had significantly longer mesophilic phases (19 days) and active composting periods (24 days) compared to the Chimato systems (14 and 22 days respectively). The temperature profiles for the two systems were similar in the glasshouse, but differed in the field due to reduced insulation in the Changu (uncovered) system. The composting processes in these systems contributed to the production of compost with as high as 1.1% total N. A higher concentration of NO3-N (406 mg/kg dwt.) was produced in the Changu system cf. Chimato (359 mg/kg dwt.) whereas a higher concentration of NH4-N (36 mg/kg dwt.) was produced in the Chimato system cf. Changu (34 mg/kg dwt.) for the Malawi compost. Similarly, Changu system resulted in greater concentrations of TON (61 mg/kg dwt.) cf. Chimato (24 mg/kg dwt.) whilst Chimato contained high concentration of NH4-N (61 mg/kg dwt.) cf. Changu (8 mg/kg dwt.) for the UK compost. No differences were observed in the concentration of extractable-P and extractable-K in the two systems for the UK studies whereas Changu treatments and those from initial C:N had more P in Malawi. Resultant compost pH ranged between 6.8 and 8.6 for the UK-based studies and between 7.2 and 8.9 for the Malawian-based study. Incubation-mineralization studies indicated temporal differences when the resultant compost from the two systems (Changu and Chimato) was incubated in the soil with respect to nutrient release. Initial feedstock C:N ratio had a significant effect, treatments with C:N 20:1 mineralized nitrogen whilst those with initial C:N 30:1 and 60:1 immobilized nitrogen compared to the control for the UK experiments. No immobilization was observed for Malawi resultant compost. This was reflected in the maize establishment trials when compost from the two systems was used as a soil amendment. Treatment with materials from initial C:N 20:1 produced significantly larger plant stalks and high plant biomass (0.92 g/plant (dry basis)) than the other treatments. Varied differences were observed between UK and Malawi with respect to composting system on plant growth. The use of compost from this study increased CEC of the soil by 2.1 cmol/kg. Efficient composting requires low C:N material and the required compost time and resultant quality is dependent upon the C:N ratio of the initial feedstock. The longer active composting time in the Changu systems appeared to influence production of TON compared to the Chimato. It is suggested that to optimise the compost quality there is a need to encourage the smallholder farmers to grow green leguminous crops which they can mix with the straw to reduce the initial C:N ratio to improve its compostability. It is also important to increase the number of aeration holes in the mud coat of the Chimato heap in order to improve the oxygenation process of the material and to use them for moisture adjustments. A cost benefit analysis conducted suggested that the lower the initial C:N ratio and the longer the chop length (≤ 10 cm), composting using the Changu system, the higher the net benefits which can be attained.Item Open Access Human – natural sports surface interaction(Cranfield University, 2008-10) Guisasola , Igor; James, IainThe playing surface has a great influence on the outcome of a sport. It has a significant effect on the ball behaviour and the technical performance of skills of the sports participants, but it also impacts on their safety. This research is focused on the interaction of humans with natural turf pitches (NTPs). The project research integrates human body, and soil, mechanics in a laboratory environment by means of new technology and methodology to provide new understanding of this interaction. In a biomechanical study carried out using a portable pitch system, stresses and movements for nine male players performing running and turning movements on sand-based and clay-based NTPs revealed significantly greater peak vertical rate-of-loadings (dFz max ) and peak pressure rate-of-loadings (dP max ) for the sand compared to the clay-based condition. A further soil mechanical study to determine how the dynamic inputs from players affected the behaviour of those surfaces concluded that soil mechanical parameters such as moisture content and dry bulk density have a significant effect on the dynamic stiffness of the surface and that sand-based pitches have a significantly greater intrinsic stiffness than clay-based pitches explaining the observed biomechanical loading rate results. The research provides a step forward in the attempt to understand how humans interact with sports surfaces and how the surfaces respond. It highlights the importance of the elastic-plastic stress-strain behaviour of soils (or the soil-turf matrix) in response to stresses applied by humans and the difference in mechanical behaviour between sand and clay-based pitches. The findings of this research will inform sports engineers about the advantages of integrating biomechanical and soil mechanical data and lead them to ensure that surfaces that are safe to play and do not hinder the quality of the game by providing reasonable wear resistance, stiffness and traction values.Item Open Access The impact of anecic earthworms on the dispersal of Microdochium nivale in amenity sports turf(Cranfield University, 2012-09) Young, Matt; Ritz, K.; James, Iain; Tibbett, MarkIn sports surface management, integrated disease management (IDM) is useful in identifying the parameters for which disease can occur. The host, pathogen and environment are factors that are intrinsically linked for disease to manifest. When either of these causal components is not present then plant disease is prevented. Soil biotas have been implicated in the movement of pathogenic soil microbes through both consumption and ejection and by external contamination, the propagule attaching itself to the external wall of the earthworm. Soil biota could therefore be included as a causal factor in disease development. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the impact anecic earthworms have on the dissemination of Microdochium nivale in amenity sports turf. An initial experiment to ascertain viability of M. nivale spores post ingestion through Lumbricus terrestris was performed. Sterilised soil pre-inoculated with M. nivale was fed to earthworms and propagules re-isolated from the faecal matter using a soil dilution technique. Results showed that 10% of viable propagules of M. nivale fed to earthworms survived the digestion process and were evident in the faecal matter (cast). A turf microcosm experiment was established to record whether the casts containing propagules of M. nivale could lead to infections of Fusarium patch, the plant disease caused by M. nivale in amenity turf. Spiked casts (M. nivale) were placed in pots containing Lolium perenne and the incidence and severity of disease was recorded using image analysis. The conclusions were that the spiked cast material was no more infectious than spore solutions of M. nivale inoculated onto the plant material. A final investigation of the effects the presence and absence of earthworms have on the dissemination of M. nivale propagules in turf grass was conducted. Turf microcosms containing Agrostis stolonifera were pre-inoculated with a spore solution of M. nivale in either the presence or absence of earthworms. Rate and progression of disease was recorded using image analysis, dispersal of propagules was assayed through leaf sampling in the microcosm. Results indicated that the presence of earthworms had a greater effect on both the manifestation of Fusarium patch, and the dispersal of M. nivale propagules than in the absence of earthworms. This study has provided a contribution to understanding the interactions between L. terrestris and M. nivale. It is clear that earthworm interaction with M. nivale enhances the dispersal of viable propagules, potentially leading to fresh manifestation of disease. Recommendations regarding the management of terrestris, already considered a nuisance on fine turf due to its casting; would be to mitigate these earthworms in areas of intensively managed turf, whereby the advantages of high earthworm activity are neither necessary nor required.Item Open Access Investigating the environmental sustainability of cricket clubs(Cranfield University, 2011-08) Carmichael, Andrew; James, IainCricket is a popular sport in England and Wales with 200,000 adult weekly participants (Sport England 2009) and 3951 registered clubs (source: ECB Play-Cricket database). Playing the game provides health and social benefits but also consumes natural resources. There is currently pressure on such natural resources and projections for population growth, urbanisation and climate change suggest this pressure may increase. Operational activities in preparing cricket surfaces contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and could lead to pollution, particularly of water courses. Cricket clubs would benefit from assistance in reducing their consumption, minimising their environmental impact and developing resilience to any future environmental challenges. Forty-three cricket clubs, more than 1% of the total registered, from all levels and affiliations of the professional and amateur game were surveyed to benchmark existing practices and make recommendations towards improving their environmental sustainability. The survey sought to identify both activities and attitudes in respect of a range of factors related to natural resources. Analysis examined whether practices varied according to regional climates or if other factors may be determinate. Opportunities to provide advice and the nature of that advice were investigated. Results allowed qualified identification of resource consumption but most frequently data could not be provided by clubs as their awareness of their own practices and the environmental implications were unknown to them. This is useful information and allows for the recommendation of greater knowledge and management of water, fuel and energy. Efficiency of existing operations should be maximised and alternatives to traditional mains supplied water and renewable energy examined. Playing surface preparations should consider research tested data and question some of the received wisdom prevalent in the practice of groundsmanship.Item Open Access The management and maintenance of second generation sand-filled synthetic sports pitches(Cranfield University, 2008-01) McLeod, Andrew J.; James, IainSynthetic sports surfaces have increased in popularity since their introduction into the United Kingdom in the early 1970's. In many sports, such as hockey and athletics, they have become the standard for play. The benefit of synthetic turf is commonly judged to be lower in maintenance requirements and operating costs, and having an increased quantity of play, when compared to natural turf. Synthetic turf has, historically, been perceived to be 'maintenance free' and there has been little or no research into the effect that maintenance has on its performance and physical characteristics. The aim of this thesis was to develop a fundamental understanding of the mechanical wear and decline in hydraulic performance of second generation synthetic turf surfaces, its impact on technical performance characteristics, and economic costs in relation to maintenance and usage.Item Open Access Mechanical behaviour of natural turf sports surfaces(Cranfield University, 2011-11) Caple, Matt C. J.; James, Iain; Bartlett, MarkThe understanding of the mechanical behaviour of natural turf pitches is limited, owed in part to the deficiencies in current testing devices and methodologies. This research aimed to advance the understanding of surface mechanical behaviour through in-situ and laboratory experiments, and via the development of new testing devices. An impact testing device, the Dynamic Surface Tester (DST) was developed, with impacts replicating the magnitude of stress applied by athletes onto turfed surfaces during running. Developmental experiments indicated that the device was sensitive to changes in soil condition due to variations (P<0.05) in impact data. Cont/d.Item Open Access Optimisation of cricket pitch rolling(Cranfield University, 2008-12) Shipton, Peter; James, IainIn the game of cricket, where a ball is bounced on a natural clay soil pitch between the ‘bowler’ and ‘batsman’, the ball-surface interaction is critical and is one of the most important factors responsible for the quality of play. Rolling of the playing surface with a smooth-wheel roller is common practice and this is intended to encourage pace, but with a predictable ball bounce that will provide a fair and safe playing surface. Current rolling management is largely based on anecdotal evidence and little work has previously being carried out in the UK to quantify the effects of rolling on cricket soils or to determine optimum rolling practice. Initiatives by the England and Wales Cricket Board (the project sponsors) to advance the commercial viability of the game of cricket and to increase player participation provide commercial justification for this project. This thesis aims to improve the fundamental understanding of the scientific principles of pitch preparation and to develop practical guidelines on roller use to help cricket groundsmen produce playing surfaces with the desired playability characteristics. A diverse methodology was used to meet the project objectives. A survey of current practice was conducted to inform experimental design and inform the targeting of rolling guidelines. Dynamic and static triaxial experiments were combined with standard laboratory tests to establish soil mechanical parameters for cricket soils. Field experimental plots and a project designed rolling simulator were used to investigate the interaction between soil mechanical and roller physical properties and to establish rolling management protocols. A grass rooting experiment was also conducted to determine the effect of soil density on root growth and distribution within the compacted soil profile. The survey of current practice established a wide range in rolling practice, particularly in the time allocated to rolling in the spring and for summer pre-match rolling. The experimental results developed the relationship between moisture and soil mechanical properties of cricket soils indicating an increase in plastic and elastic strain with an increase in moisture in un-saturated soils. An increase in soil moisture from 16% to 25% gravimetric moisture content was also shown to increase horizontal movement under a towed roller; however the inclusion of grass roots into the soil profile considerably reduced soil displacement. Soil optimum moisture conditions were identified for a range of roller specifications; 24% gravimetric moisture for a 750 kg m -3 roller and 22% for a 920 kg m -3 roller. Roller speed (0.7 km h -1 ) and the amount of roller passes required (four passes of a two drum roller in the spring and a total of 10 passes for summer match preparation) were established for cricket pitch preparation. Results also indicated a significant potential to reduce annual rolling times when undertaken in optimum soil moisture conditions. This could result in a substantial reduction in cost to the cricket industry and a reduction in CO2 emissions.