Browsing by Author "Horsfall, Ian"
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Item Open Access 3D printing, the future of cost effective biomechanical testing(SAFE, 2017-04-06) Franceskides, C.; Arnold, Emily; Horsfall, Ian; Clasper, J.; Tozzi, G.; Zioupos, PeterItem Open Access Adequacy of test standards in evaluating blast overpressure (BOP) protection for the torso(2016-11-18) Whyte, Tamlin; Horsfall, IanThe blast wave emanating from an explosion produces an almost instantaneous rise in pressure which can then cause Blast Overpressure (BOP) injuries to nearby persons. BOP injury criteria are specified in test standards to relate BOP measurements in a testing environment to a risk of BOP injury. This study considered the adequacy of test standards in evaluating BOP protection concepts for the torso. Four potential BOP injury scenarios were studied to determine the likelihood of injury and the adequacy of test standards for appropriate protection concepts. In the case of vehicle blast, BOP injury is unlikely and test standards are adequate. In the scenario involving an explosive charge detonated within a vehicle, and the close proximity to a hand grenade scenario, test standards are not available. The demining scenario was identified as of importance as test standards are available, but do not mandate the evaluation of BOP protection. A prototype South African Torso Surrogate (SATS) was developed to explore this scenario further. The SATS was required to be relatively inexpensive and robust. The SATS was cast from silicone (selected to represent body tissue characteristics) using a torso mould containing a steel frame and instrumented with chest face-on pressure transducer and accelerometer. The SATS was subjected to an Anti-Personnel (AP) mine test and the Chest Wall Velocity Predictor and Viscous Criterion were used to predict that BOP injuries would occur in a typical demining scenario. This result was confirmed by applying the injury criteria to empirical blast predictions from the Blast Effects Calculator Version 4 (BECV4). Although limitations exist in the ability of injury criteria and measurement methods to accurately predict BOP injuries, generally a conservative approach should be taken. Thus, it is recommended that the risk of BOP injuries should be evaluated in demining personal protective equipment test standards.Item Open Access Ballistic and physical properties of highly fractured alumina(Maney Publishing, 2010-11-01T00:00:00Z) Horsfall, Ian; Edwards, M. R.; Hallas, M. J.It is known that ceramic materials in armour are often shattered by a penetrating projectile and the resistance to penetration is therefore dependent upon the properties of this failed material. A small explosive charge was used to shatter a confined 95% alumina tile by passing the stress wave from an explosive detonation through a steel cover plate and into the ceramic. This fractured material was shown to have an elastic modulus of 130 GPa compared to 330 GPa for the monolithic alumina. Impact indentation tests and ballistic depth of penetration tests were performed on the intact ceramic, shattered ceramic and a pressed ceramic powder compact. It was found that the fractured material had a ballistic efficiency approximately 70% of that of the monolithic alumina and was also able to cause significant erosion to the projectItem Open Access Causes of scatter in high rate fracture testing of polymers(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2013-12-31T00:00:00Z) Agnelli, S.; Horsfall, IanA method based on the measurement of failure time is being developed by the European Structural Integrity Society to determine high rate fracture toughness of polymers. The test method appears reasonably straightforward but produced unacceptably high scatter, due to failure time data scatter. In this work an experimentally based sensitivity study was performed by fracture tests at 1ms-1 in order to determine the causes of scatter and to seek to improve the test protocol. No single cause of scatter was identified but the quality and repeatability of the notching technique was identified as a major contributor.Item Open Access A comparison of the behind armour blunt trauma effects between ceramic faced and soft body armours caused by ballistic impact(2002-11-18T00:00:00Z) Lewis, E. A.; Horsfall, Ian; Watson, Celia H.; van Bree, J. L. M. J.Recently published research has characterised the behind armour blunt trauma (BABT) effects associated with high velocity ballistic impact on textile-based armour faced with a ceramic plate. Subsequently dynamic displacements, accelerations and pressures have been characterised both in Gelatine experiments and animal experiments and used to provide test methodologies. High velocity armour consists of a ceramic plate usually backed with a composite panel, which is worn over the conventional textile body armour. The purpose of the plate is to disrupt and spread the energy of the high velocity projectile such that the resulting displacement can beaccommodated and partially absorbed by the textile armour. On its own, the textile armour isonly capable of preventing penetration by low kinetic energy density projectiles such as fragments, which are of a similar magnitude to hand gun bullets. For police officers, civilian security personnel and for the military, in operations other than war, there is a need to protect against low-velocity handgun bullets such as 9mm and 0.375 Magnum; these being the rounds typically used in ballistic test standards. As the purpose of the ceramic plate is to reduce the energy density of a high-velocity projectile to that which can be arrested bya soft armour; it follows that there may be a relationship between the impact of a low-velocity projectile on soft armour and a high velocity projectile on a ceramic faced soft armour .The purpose of this work was to gather data on the back-face deformation behaviour of soft body armour and compare it to that of hard armour by determining whether there was a correlation between previous ceramic plate data and soft armour tests, and also to determine whether backface pressure data could be used to rank other simulant materials.Item Open Access Development of models to assess penetrating injury from ballistic projectiles(United Kingdom Defence Academy/Cranfield University, 2020) James, Gregory R.; Horsfall, Ian; Knock, ClareInjuries from penetrating ballistic projectiles, such as fragments and bullets, are the major cause of military (and civilian) casualties in conflict, as well as casualties in terrorist incidents. This research project had the primary aim of developing models that facilitate the assessment of injury from penetrating ballistic projectiles, in both a physical and virtual environment. Existing models and literature in this area has been limited to a narrow range of scenarios (such as specific projectile types) or with limited validation of the models. Collation of ballistic data for muscle tissue and simulants from the literature, in addition to an extensive original dataset and novel data analysis techniques allowed a definitive assessment of the validity of skin and muscle tissue simulants for wound ballistics research, relevant to fragments and bullets. A range of physical and virtual models were developed and are applicable to assessing the risk of penetrating projectiles in ballistic and blast scenarios. Considered particularly novel was the development of a new fragment witness pack to assess the hazard from low density and low energy fragments by predicting the risk of eye penetration, skin perforation and to estimate the impact velocity of the projectile. The range of physical and virtual models developed have been used to provide insights to (and describe implications of) the target factors that influence the outcomes of physical testing when using real tissue or tissue simulants. The exploitation of these models has led to improvements in tactics, techniques, and procedures and equipment for UK Armed Forces and police, ultimately reducing injuries and saving lives.Item Open Access An evaluation of the hypodermic needle threat against body armour(2004-09-06T00:00:00Z) Watson, Celia H.; Horsfall, Ian; Luk, Edwina; van Bree, J. L. M. J.Previous work has addressed protection against stab attacks [1, 2], and slash attacks [3, 4] this has resulted in body armour that is suitable for protecting the torso against knives. Whilst this armour combats the primary lethal injuries to the torso it does not protect against minor injuries to the limbs and hands from items such as hypodermic needles and other sharp weapons. To reduce injuries to the hands from sharp weapons and needles there is a need for an effective protective glove and also a protective sleeve for the arms. This paper investigates the threats posed by hypodermic needles and examines the effectiveness of various possible needle proof systems. In order to determine the contact loads from needles that might be encountered whilst conducting body searches, male and female volunteers used an instrumented impact system to measure the average impact forces of human hand against a fixed object. The compressive loads a hand imparts as it grips an object to pick it up were also measured. A range of sizes of hypodermic needles were used to measure the puncture resistance of several lightweight armour materials and the buckling loads of the needles were also determined. This study showed that the buckling loads for hypodermic needles were much lower than typical loads measured in the human tests for accidental contact or gripping. Although a hypodermic needle is able to puncture skin easily, when puncturing armour materials the needles tended to buckle.Item Open Access Feasibility of using damage to body armour as evidence to prove the degree of intent of wounding(2008-10-06T00:00:00Z) Watson, Celia H.; Parker, Fiona; Horsfall, Ian; Fenne, PaulIt has become standard practice for Police Authorities to issue stab resistant body armour to all officers who are placed at risk of knife assault. Subsequently if the officer is subjected to a knife attack it has been difficult to prove the degree of intent of wounding by a suspect. Arguments that no real harm could be intended, as the officer was protected by armour, are presented in court to mitigate any sentence of intent to wound. Several Police Forces have requested that damaged armour from attacks be forensically examined to determine the extent of damage and directly relate this damage to the forces of the impacts in an attack.This paper assesses the feasibility of using damage to body armour worn during an incident as evidence to prove the degree of intent of wounding. The study compares the different weapons used, variation in damage caused by blades of different dimensions and damage related to tip and blade sharpness. The relationships between force, energy and damage, the effect of armour construction and how all these factors effect the type of damage expected are also investigated. This work highlights the fundamentals necessary for the development of a forensic protocol to investigate damage to stab resistant armours so that the results could be accepted in evidence.Item Open Access Glass ceramic armour systems for light armour applications(2001-05-07T00:00:00Z) Horsfall, Ian; Crewther, I. R.This paper descries an experimental evaluation of lithium-zinc-silicate glass ceramics when used as the strike face of an armour system. It is shown that against soft cored 7.62mm rounds (lead or mild steel cores) glass ceramics offer protection at an areal density which is equal to or better than alumina faced systems. The lithium zinc silicate system has a relatively low hardness (Hv 600) when compared to conventional ceramics such as alumina (typically Hv1300-1500). Consequently the performance of the glass ceramic system against hard cored projectiles is poor.Item Open Access A gun based test method to simulate mine blast against boots(2016-11-18) Pinto, Ryan Keith; Horsfall, IanBlast mines have played a major role in almost every conflict from the two world wars to the most recent skirmishes. They provide a psychological threat in addition to denying access to areas and exerting a huge toll on the logistic and medical capabilities in conflict zones. Due to the lack of inexpensive and reliable mechanical technique that would work consistently and without the danger of mines being missed, human deminers are often preferred. This means that deminers are under constant threat of serious traumatic injuries to lower extremities, potentially leading to amputation and death. A limited number of studies have been published in the open literature regarding the performance of boots both commercially available and those that are specifically designed to deal with anti – personnel mines. The issue with these studies is that while they have followed a common test method, they have been unable to agree on the variables involved. This has resulted in studies that produce vastly different results making them difficult to compare. However, while all of them have concluded that none of the commercial boots tested provided adequate protection against even a small mine, there have been varied results observed with respect to certain mine resistant boots with some reporting adequate protection while others reporting outright failure. Blast testing involves a large number of variables making it difficult to produce repeatable, consistent and conclusive results, and therefore difficult to prove the claims of different boots. The aim of the research project was i) to investigate the reliability and reproducibility of current blast test methods while testing the performance of commercially available boots and ii) to develop a new test method that is able to replicate the performance of blast test methods that is capable of producing more consistent and reproducible results while being cheaper, quicker and flexible. To address these challenges, blast testing was conducted using a variety of commercially available boots – i) to test their performance and if the results observed line up with the literature and ii) to obtain baseline data for further analysis. Blast testing demonstrated that none of the commercially available boots offer adequate protection even against a small mine. They additionally highlighted issues with this type of testing regarding their accuracy and repeatability. This was compared to an analysis of the effect that foams have on reducing loads, which showed that by increasing the number of layers it was possible to reduce the loads measured. However, the total impulse measured remained the same irrespective of the foam thickness. The baseline data from the blast test was used to develop a new gun based test in order to address the limitation observed during blast testing. The final version of this test was able to match the performance of the blast test while being able to produce penetration. A subsection of the research tested the effectiveness of socks as a means of preventing contamination. Two different types of socks were used in three different arrangements and testing revealed that socks have a positive effect on preventing contamination.Item Open Access Impact perforation testing of stab-resistant armour materials(1995-12-31T00:00:00Z) Horsfall, Ian; Pollitt, S. M.; Belk, J. A.; Angood, C.; Williams, J.G.; Pavan, A.This paper describes the development of a method for the investigation and comparison of materials for use in stab resistant body armour. A number of polymer composite panels of different thicknesses and construction have been tested. A dynamic test which simulated the real threat has been used and the results compared to a simpler quasi-static test that might be used in initial materials selection. The materials tested were glass-epoxy, and glass-nylon composite panels of several thicknesses between 1.8 and 5.8mm. Additional tests were also performed on similar composites containing tungsten wires. An accelerated instrumented drop-tower was used to drive a knife through composite panels and record the force resisting penetration by the knife. The final penetration of the knife through the armour into a soft backing was also measured. For comparison,a similar geometry quasi-static test was carried out on the same specimens. It was found that energy absorbtion took the form of an initial resistance to perforation and then by a resistance to further penetration. This is thought to stem from resistance to cutting ofthe panel material and gripping of the knife blade. The energy required to produce a given penetration in dynamic tests was found to be in good agreement with the penetration achieved at similar energies under quasi-static conditions. For the materials tested there was no significant difference between the penetration resistance of single or two layer systems. The penetration achieved through a panel of a given material was approximately proportional to the inverse square of the panel's thickness. The relative performance of different armour materials was assessed by plotting the energy required to penetrate a fixed distance against the areal density of the panel.Item Open Access Near-field microwave imaging using a polarimetric array of 3D printed antennas and lenses(IET, 2019-02-18) Wirth, Sebastian G.; Morrow, Ivor L.; Horsfall, IanA novel near-field microwave imaging system was designed and fabricated using the three-dimensional (3D) printing technique to manufacture X-band Pyramidal horn antennas and planar graded-index (GRIN) lenses. The flat lens focusing profile is synthesised by varying the refractive index radially in incremental steps that adjust the air-dielectric mixture. The lens is designed for direct attachment to the antenna aperture and transforms spherical waves emanating from antenna phase center into plane radiating waves. Simulated and measurement results show the antenna lens system input impedance is ≤ -10 dB, radiation pattern gain is between 17-20dBi over the 8.2-12.4GHz frequency band and when arrayed for polarimetry sensing has a polarisation cross-talk of ≤-50 dB. A ground penetrating radar system using the nearfield array was scanned over buried targets. The SAR results demonstrated high resolution and polarisation discrimination imagery capable of detecting subsurface objects.Item Open Access Optimizing the stacking sequence in dual-purpose body armors(American Society Mechanical Engineers, 2013-05-01T00:00:00Z) Horsfall, Ian; Watson, Celia H.; Champion, Stephen M.Many police body armor systems are dual purpose, offering both ballistic and knife resistanceby combining a flexible ballistic textile pack with a stiffer knife resistant layer.The two types of protection differ in materials and mechanisms such that each individualcomponent may help or interfere with the function of the other. This paper investigatesthe effect on knife and ballistic penetration resistance when a single thin metal plate wasplaced at various different positions within an aramid textile armor pack. Two metalliclayers were used: aluminum 7075 and commercial purity titanium; these had similarareal densities and were positioned in the front, middle, and back of a 20 layer pack ofwoven KevlarVR 49. An instrumented drop weight machine was used to deliver a repeatableknife blade impact at comparable energy levels to those specified in the UK HomeOffice test standards for knife resistance. Ballistic tests were used to determine the V50ballistic limit velocity against typical 9mm and 0.357 Magnum handgun threats. Againsta stabbing threat, it was found that positioning the metal plate in the middle of the packprovided the greatest resistance to knife penetration by a factor of almost two, while aplate at the front of the pack provided less resistance and plates positioned at the rear ofthe pack provided the least resistance to penetration. Against the ballistic threat, the penetrationresistance of the textile pack can be significantly improved when a metal plate isat the front of the pack, while for all other positions the effect is negligible. However, thiseffect is sensitive to both the ammunition type and the metal plate composition. When themetal plate is positioned at the rear of the pack there is a significant decrease in theback-face deformation of the armor pack although, again, this effect is only present forcertain ammunition and metal combinations. The overall effect of combining soft andhard elements was that specific performance parameters could be substantially increasedby the correct combination. There were no significant negative effects, however, in anumber of cases, the combined systems performance was no greater than that of a singleelement type, despite the added weight.Item Open Access Partitioning of shallow buried near-field blast(2017-02) Reinecke, John David; Horsfall, IanBuried blast continues to present a threat to military and humanitarian operations. Burying an explosive device simultaneously hides and has the potential to enhance the subsequent blast loading. Although widely published and accepted that a buried blast load consists of a number of temporally separated elements most research instruments quantify resultant load in terms of a single impulse value. Over-pressure sensors have been used to temporally research buried blast loading, however these provide only a single point measurement to a three-dimensional loading. Understanding the temporal loading from a buried blast will support the development of more effective and innovative protection systems. In recent years there have been a number of published research efforts providing new methods and results on temporal blast loading, however how these results relate to the blast loading has not been presented in the public domain. Using a combination of computational modelling and a specifically designed scaled test rig that enabled both free-field as well as intermediate and near-field target response measurements, this research explored the quantification and the temporal phasing of a shallow-buried blast load. The target force-time response, the target side-on and face-on pressure and the target assembly displacement-time confirmed a phased free-field blast load, phased target pressure loading and a phased temporal target response. Based on published work and the computational modelling and test results from this work, three shallow buried blast load phases were identified comprising: 1. An initial soil ejecta and blast overpressure impact (Phase One); 2. Followed by gas expansion (Phase Two) and; 3. Last reflected pressure combined with afterburn (Phase Three) loading. For this research the soil ejecta primarily contributed to the blast load as part of the first phase impact and had limited contribution thereafter. The percentage phase contribution to the total blast loading is dependent on the measurement system and its characteristics. The identified three loading phases were verified ii through comparison to secondary data from both scaled and full blast load test rigsItem Open Access Pre-stressed plates as a mechanism to provide additional under belly blast protection(ISB, 2016-05) Darrock, L.; Manning, A.; Caine, J.; Beadle, J.; Pearce, A.; Horsfall, IanThe use of curved pre-stressed plates is investigated as this provides a possible additional mechanism to resist both initial folding and later structural collapse. Numerical modelling in Autodyn (R) and empirical calculations based on the Westine model were used to determine starting conditions for the explosive trials. Trials were conducted in which plates were pre-stressed by the imposition of a large bending moment from two parallel sides resulting in a tensile stress on the outer surface facing the blast. Tests were conducted at approximately one third linear scale using target plates of 500mm x 500mm and a charge of between 100g and 250g buried in dried sand was used to load them. Unstressed but curved plates were tested and then compared to similar shaped curved plates with an imposed bending stress equal to the yield stress or ultimate tensile stress of the plate material.Item Open Access A process for the fabrication of ceramic fibre reinforced titanium aluminide(1992-01-07T00:00:00Z) Horsfall, Ian; Cundy, S. J.; Wachtman, J. B.This paper describes initial work on a novel process for the production of titanium aluminide matrix composites reinforced with short alumina fibers. The processing route involves an adaption of existing metal matrix composite (MMC) fabrication technology used to produce hybrid particulate/short fiber composites. A preform is produced which contains alumina fibers and titanium metal powder with a fiber content of around 10% by volume and approximately 50% porosity. This preform is then infiltrated with pure aluminum by a squeeze casting process to produce a fully dense composite of titanium powder and alumina fibers in a metallic aluminum matrix. The composite is then heat treated in a hot isostatic press to react the aluminum and titanium to produce a titanium aluminide matrix.Item Open Access Protecting from Slash Knife Attacks(2010-11-04T00:00:00Z) Horsfall, Ian; Arnold, Mathew R.The provision of stab- and bullet-resistant body armour to UK police officers is now commonplace. These garments comprise of a multi-layer pack which contributes to thermo-physiological loading and reduction in mobility. Recently interest has turned towards slash protection, culminating in the publication of a standard method for testing slash resistance (Malbon and Croft, 2006). A retrospective survey of hospital admissions data that contributed to the development of the standard suggested that 63 % of wounds attributable to sharp edged weapons were slash events. The most vulnerable areas were the head, arms, thighs and neck (Bleetman, Watson, Horsfall and Champion, 2003). The incorporation of successful slash protection into garments should not affect mobility, and is required to be covert. In the current research the effectiveness of a quilting pattern applied to a 100 % cotton plain woven fabric (nominally mass per unit area 360 g/m2, thickness 0.62 mm, sett 14 x 14 yarns / 10 mm) on resisting slash attacks was investigated. In this preliminary study, quilting was applied to a single layer of fabric by hand (stitch type ISO 209, stitch length ~ 3 mm) using titanium wire, braided Dyneema, braided Kevlar and plaited Kevlar in 5 x 5 mm and 10 x 10 mm patterns orientated on-grain and in the bias directions. All slash events were conducted in the weft direction of the fabric. Number of slashes to penetrate, the effect of dry and wet conditions, the effect of backing materials and failure mechanisms were determined.Item Open Access Spinal Motion Segments — I: Concept for a Subject-specific Analogue Model(Springer, 2020-06-24) Franceskides, Constantinos; Arnold, Emily; Horsfall, Ian; Tozzi, Gianluca; Gibson, Michael C.; Zioupos, PeterMost commercial spine analogues are not intended for biomechanical testing, and those developed for this purpose are expensive and yet still fail to replicate the mechanical performance of biological specimens. Patient-specific analogues that address these limitations and avoid the ethical restrictions surrounding the use of human cadavers are therefore required. We present a method for the production and characterisation of biofidelic, patient-specific, Spine Motion Segment (SMS = 2 vertebrae and the disk in between) analogues that allow for the biological variability encountered when dealing with real patients. Porcine spine segments (L1–L4) were scanned by computed tomography, and 3D models were printed in acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Four biological specimens and four ABS motion segments were tested, three of which were further segmented into two Vertebral Bodies (VBs) with their intervertebral disc (IVD). All segments were loaded axially at 0.6 mm·min−1 (strain-rate range 6×10−4 s−1–10×10−4 s−1). The artificial VBs behaved like biological segments within the elastic region, but the best two-part artificial IVD were ∼15% less stiff than the biological IVDs. High-speed images recorded during compressive loading allowed full-field strains to be produced. During compression of the spine motion segments, IVDs experienced higher strains than VBs as expected. Our method allows the rapid, inexpensive and reliable production of patient-specific 3D-printed analogues, which morphologically resemble the real ones, and whose mechanical behaviour is comparable to real biological spine motion segments and this is their biggest asset.Item Open Access Spinal Motion Segments — II: Tuning and Optimisation for Biofidelic Performance(Springer, 2020-06-24) Franceskides, Constantinos; Arnold, Emily; Horsfall, Ian; Tozzi, Gianluca; Gibson, Michael C.; Zioupos, PeterMost commercially available spine analogues are not intended for biomechanical testing, and the few that are suitable for using in conjunction with implants and devices to allow a hands-on practice on operative procedures are very expensive and still none of these offers patient-specific analogues that can be accessed within reasonable time and price range. Man-made spine analogues would also avoid the ethical restrictions surrounding the use of biological specimens and complications arising from their inherent biological variability. Here we sought to improve the biofidelity and accuracy of a patient-specific motion segment analogue that we presented recently. These models were made by acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) in 3D printing of porcine spine segments (T12–L5) from microCT scan data, and were tested in axial loading at 0.6 mm·min−1 (strain rate range 6×10−4 s −1 – 10×10−4 s−1 ). In this paper we have sought to improve the biofidelity of these analogue models by concentrating in improving the two most critical aspects of the mechanical behaviour: the material used for the intervertebral disc and the influence of the facet joints. The deformations were followed by use of Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and consequently different scanning resolutions and data acquisition techniques were also explored and compared to determine their effect. We found that the selection of an appropriate intervertebral disc simulant (PT Flex 85) achieved a realistic force/displacement response and also that the facet joints play a key role in achieving a biofidelic behaviour for the entire motion segment. We have therefore overall confirmed the feasibility of producing, by rapid and inexpensive 3D-printing methods, high-quality patient-specific spine analogue models suitable for biomechanical testing and practiceItem Open Access Spiral strand cables subjected to high velocity fragment impact(Elsevier, 2017-05) Judge, Ryan; Yang, Z.; Jones, S. W.; Beattie, G.; Horsfall, IanStructural cables are widely adopted around the world in offshore construction, sports stadia, large scale bridges, Ferris wheels and suspended canopy and fabric structures. However, the robustness of such structures to blast or impact is uncertain with a particular concern related to the loss of a primary structural cable when damaged by high velocity blast fragmentation. This paper presents the first ever numerical and experimental study on commonly used high-strength steel spiral strand cables subjected to high velocity fragment impact. Spiral strand cables were impacted by 20 mm fragment simulating projectiles travelling at velocities between 200 and 1400 m/s. Complex 3D non-linear finite element models were developed and carefully compared with experimental tests. The penetration resistance of the cables and resultant damage were studied with respect to fragment impact velocity. It was found that for all the impact velocities, the fragment penetration depth was less than half of the cable diameter demonstrating a considerable amount of resilience. Considering the damage caused, the residual cable breaking strengths were estimated and found to be still higher than the minimum breaking load of an un-damaged cable. The numerical models were also able to reproduce the main features of the impact tests, including the extent of localised damage area, the fragment penetration depth and mode of individual wire failures, thus demonstrating their potential to be widely used in industry for structural resilience and robustness assessments by structural engineers.