Browsing by Author "Graves, Anil R."
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Item Open Access Agronomy and economics of two novel energy crops: Sida Hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium Perfoilatum L.(2021-05) Cumplido-Marin, Laura; Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.The PhD project of title “Agronomy and Economics of two novel energy crops: Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum L.” was first conceptualised within the international project SidaTim. The main aim of the PhD was to reduce the uncertainty associated with the adoption of Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum L., through data gathering and evaluating their agronomic, economic and environmental performance. The main objectives of the PhD were: to review all available information and publications regarding the cultivation and energy production of the two species; to assess their agronomic performance in the UK; to examine the impact of their establishment on soil carbon; to determine their profitability against other potential crops across a European gradient; and to evaluate the greenhouse gas emissions associated with their cultivation. The novelty of the research lies on the establishment and assessment of two novel bioenergy crops in the UK compared across a range of climatic conditions, addressing the knowledge gaps regarding reliability and availability of information and assessment of their agronomic, economic and environmental performance. The first year of the project was dedicated to background research, collecting and processing the first set of soil analyses, producing all Silphium perfoliatum (L.) seedlings from seed, importing Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby seeds from Germany, and in 2017 establishing an experimental site in Silsoe, Bedfordshire, UK. During the first three years,the mean maximum height of Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby originated from seedlings was 198 cm and the maximum stem diameters were 14-18 mm. The mean maximum height of Silphium perfoliatum (L.) was 158 cm over three years and the maximum stem diameters were 14-16 mm. As opposed to the expected increase in maximum heights and diameters with time until plantation maturity, an overall reduction in maximum heights and diameters was recorded with time for Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby, whilst only maximum diameters of Silphium perfoliatum (L.) decreased with time. Each year from February 2018, a winter harvest to measure the solid biomass production of Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and a summer harvest to measure the green biomass production of both Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum L. were carried out until September 2020. Mean dry biomass yields of Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby plants grown from transplants for solid fuel for combustion were 1.7, 5.4, and 3.7 t DM ha⁻¹ in 2018, 2019, and 2020 respectively. Green biomass yields of Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby for anaerobic digestion were on average 10.8, 8.1, 6.0 t DM ha⁻¹ in 2018, 2019, and 2020 respectively. The recorded declines in harvested biomass from Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby are attributed to the combined effect of plant mortality, management and fertilisation practices. The corresponding mean green biomass yields of Silphium perfoliatum L. for anaerobic digestion were 4.6, 6.7, 8.9 t DM ha⁻¹ in 2018, 2019, and 2020. The second and third year focussed on objectives three and four, as well as collecting and processing the second set of soil analyses, data analysis, and writing up. The bulk density of the soil across 0-5 cm and 10-15 cm changed from 1.4-1.7 g cm³ prior to cultivation in 2017, to a uniform 1.4 g cm³ in 2020. The concentration of soil organic carbon at 0-5 cm decreased from 2.58% in 2017 to 1.85% in 2020, whereas at 10-15 cm, it increased from 1.86% to 2.12% over the three years. Overall, the mean soil organic carbon stocks (0-15 cm) declined from 65.0-67.6 t C ha⁻¹ in 2017 in 55.2-58.3 t C ha⁻¹ in 2020. The profitability of Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum (L.) was predicted over a rotation of 16 years and compared to that of an arable rotation and two other energy crops for the particular case of the UK and three other European countries. The calculated net present value (NPV) of Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby was -1,591 £ ha⁻¹ without subsidies and 1,075 £ ha⁻¹ with subsidies; the corresponding net present values for Silphium perfoliatum (L.) were 3,031 £ ha⁻¹ and 5,607 £ ha⁻¹ . The study also calculated how much prices and costs would need to change for the NPV of the two crops to match the NPV of the most profitable energy crop or the arable rotation. Using an Excel model developed based on the IPCC guidelines, the greenhouse gas emissions for Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum (L.) production were calculated for a 16-year period. On a per annum basis, overall greenhouse gas emissions were estimated respectively at 4.2, 0.3, 2.2, -4.0 and -0.6 t CO2 eq ha⁻¹ for the arable rotation, short rotation coppice, Miscanthus, Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum (L.) systems. The environmental assessment demonstrated that cultivating Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum (L.) could potentially contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.Item Open Access Assessing preferences for cultural ecosystem services in the English countryside using Q methodology(MDPI, 2023-01-26) Hubatova, Marie; McGinlay, James; Parsons, David J.; Morris, Joe; Graves, Anil R.Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES) are difficult to assess due to the subjective and diverse way in which they are experienced. This can make it difficult to apply CES research to enhance human experience of nature. This study applies Q methodology to group people according to their preferences for CES. The Q methodology survey was carried out with 47 local residents and tourists in Wiltshire, in South West England. Four groups of respondents were identified drawing value from nature through: (1) spiritual benefits and mental well-being (Group 1—Inspired by nature); (2) nature and biodiversity conservation (Group 1—Conserving nature); (3) cultural heritage in multifunctional landscapes (Group 3—Countryside mix); and (4) opportunities for outdoor activities (Group 4—Outdoor pursuits). All four groups stated that benefits from nature were enhanced by actually visiting the countryside, through a better understanding of nature itself, and through a range of sensory experiences. They particularly identified relaxation opportunities as a very important CES benefit. These findings, and the demonstrated use of the Q methodology, could support local planning and landscape management in order to provide accessible and functional landscapes that can provide a range of different CES benefits to people.Item Open Access Assessing the impact of greenhouse gas emissions on economic profitability of arable, forestry, and silvoarable systems(MDPI, 2021-03-25) Kaske, Kristina J.; García de Jalón, Silvestre; Williams, Adrian G.; Graves, Anil R.This study assesses the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and sequestration of a silvoarable system with poplar trees and a crop rotation of wheat, barley, and oilseed rape and compares this with a rotation of the same arable crops and a poplar plantation. The Farm-SAFE model, a financial model of arable, forestry, and silvoarable systems, was modified to account for life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions from tree and crop management were determined from life-cycle inventories and carbon storage benefits from the Yield-SAFE model, which predicts crop and tree yields in arable, forestry, and silvoarable systems. An experimental site in Silsoe in southern England served as a case study. The results showed that the arable system was the most financially profitable system, followed by the silvoarable and then the forestry systems, with equivalent annual values of EUR 560, 450 and 140 ha−1, respectively. When the positive and negative externalities of GHG sequestration and emissions were converted into carbon equivalents and given an economic value, the profitability of the arable systems was altered relative to the forestry and silvoarable systems, although in the analysis, the exact impact depended on the value given to GHG emissions. Market values for carbon resulted in the arable system remaining the most profitable system, albeit at a reduced level. Time series values for carbon proposed by the UK government resulted in forestry being the most profitable system. Hence, the relative benefit of the three systems was highly sensitive to the value that carbon was given in the analysis. This in turn is dependent on the perspective that is given to the analysis.Item Open Access Development and application of bio-economic modelling to compare silvoarable, arable, and forestry systems in three European countries.(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2007-04-01T00:00:00Z) Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.; Palma, João H. N.; Herzog, F.; Moreno, G.; Bertomeu, M.; Dupraz, Christian; Liagre, F.; Keesman, Karel; van der Werf, Wopke; Koeffeman, de Nooy A.; van den Briel, J. P.Silvoarable agroforestry could promote use of trees on farms in Europe, but its likely effect on production, farm profitability, and environmental services is poorly understood. Hence, from 2001 to 2005, the Silvoarable Agroforestry for Europe project developed a systematic process to evaluate the biophysical and economic performance of arable, forestry, and silvoarable systems in Spain, France, and The Netherlands. A biophysical model called “Yield-SAFE” was developed to predict long-term yields for the different systems and local statistics and expert opinion were used to derive their revenue, costs, and pre- and post-2005 grant regimes. These data were then used in an economic model called “Farm-SAFE” to predict plot- and farm-scale profitability. Land equivalent ratios were greater than one, showing Yield-SAFE predicted that growing trees and crops in silvoarable systems was more productive than growing them separately. Pre-2005 grants in Spain and The Netherlands penalised silvoarable systems, but post-2005 grants were more equitable. In France, walnut and poplar silvoarable systems were consistently the most profitable system under both grant regimes. In Spain, holm oak and stone pine silvoarable systems were the least profitable system under pre-2005 grants, but only marginally less profitable than arable systems under post-2005 grants. In The Netherlands, low timber values and the opportunity cost of losing arable land for slurry manure application made silvoarable and forestry systems uncompetitive with arable systems under both grantItem Open Access Does agri-environmental management enhance biodiversity and multiple ecosystem services?: A farm-scale experiment(Elsevier, 2021-07-23) Bullock, James M.; McCracken, Morag E.; Bowes, Michael J.; Chapman, Roselle E.; Graves, Anil R.; Hinsley, Shelley A.; Hutchins, Michael G.; Nowakowski, Marek; Nicholls, David J. E.; Oakley, Simon; Old, Gareth H.; Ostle, Nicholas J.; Redhead, John W.; Woodcock, Ben A.; Bedwell, Tom; Mayes, Sarah; Robinson, Vicky S.; Pywell, Richard F.Agri-environmental management has been promoted as an approach to enhance delivery of multiple ecosystem services. Most agri-environment agreements include several actions that the farmer agrees to put in place. But, most studies have only considered how individual agri-environmental actions affect particular ecosystem services. Thus, there is little understanding of how the range of agri-environmental actions available to a farmer might be deployed on any individual farm to enhance multiple services. To address this knowledge gap, we carried out an experimental study in which we deployed a set of agri-environmental actions on a commercial farm in southern England. Agri-environmental actions comprised wildflower margins and fallow areas in arable fields, creating and enhancing grassland with wildflowers, and digging ponds. Alongside biodiversity responses, we measured effects on a number of ecosystem services: pollination, pest control, crop and forage yield, water quality, climate regulation and cultural services. Wildflower margins enhanced invertebrates, pest control and crop yield, and aesthetic appeal. A greater number of pollinators was linked to enhanced oilseed rape yield. But these margins and the fallows did not prevent run-off of nutrients and sediment into waterways, and showed limited carbon sequestration or reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Newly-dug ponds captured large amounts of sediment and provided aesthetic appeal. Grasslands had higher soil carbon content and microbial biomass, lower N20 emissions, and net sequestration of carbon compared to arable land. Enhancement of grassland plant diversity increased forage quality and aesthetic appeal. Visitors and residents valued a range of agri-environmental features and biodiversity across the farm. Our findings suggest one cannot necessarily expect any particular agri-environmental action will enhance all of a hoped-for set of ecosystem services in any particular setting. A bet-hedging strategy would be for farmers to apply a suite of options to deliver a range of ecosystem service benefits, rather than assuming that one or two options will work as catch-all solutions.Item Open Access Farmer perception of benefits, constraints and opportunities for silvoarable systems: preliminary insights from Bedfordshire, England(Sage, 2017-03-01) Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.; Liagre, F.; Dupraz, C.Silvoarable agroforestry integrates the use of trees and arable crops on the same area of land, and such systems can be supported by national governments under the European Union’s (EU) Rural Development Regulations (2014–2020). In order to improve the understanding of farmers’ perceptions of such systems, detailed face-to-face interviews were completed with 15 farmers in Bedfordshire, England. Most of these farmers thought that silvoarable systems would not be profitable on their farms and that benefits would tend to be environmental or social rather than economic. Most farmers also thought that management and use of machinery would become more difficult. They felt that the tree component could potentially disrupt field operations and drainage and expressed concerns over the uncertain and long-term nature of timber revenue and the effect of intercrop yield reductions on crop revenue. Even so, 20% of the farmers stated they would use silvoarable systems if convinced that they were more profitable than conventional arable farming. A further 20% said they would farm the intercrop area belonging to someone else, if the rent was reduced to compensate for crop yield reductions. These results suggest that for most arable farmers, an economic advantage over current practice needs to exist before silvoarable systems are likely to be adopted. However, a minority might rent the crop component of a silvoarable system from another party or implement a full system for perceived environmental or social benefits.Item Open Access Food, land and greenhouse gases The effect of changes in UK food consumption on land requirements and greenhouse gas emissions. Report for the Committee on Climate Change.(2010-12-21T00:00:00Z) Audsley, Eric; Angus, Andrew; Chatterton, Julia C.; Graves, Anil R.; Morris, Joe; Murphy-Bokern, Donal; Pearn, Kerry R.; Sandars, Daniel L.; Williams, Adrian G.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY •1. Key findingsThis study examines the land use and greenhouse gas implications of UK food consumption change away from carbon intensive products. It shows that the UK agricultural land base can support increased consumption of plant-based products arising from the reduced consumption of livestock products. A 50% reduction in livestock product consumption reduces the area of arable and grassland required to supply UK food, both in the UK and overseas. It also reduces emissions of greenhouse gases from primary production by 19%. A switch from beef or sheepmeat (red meat) to pork or poultry (white meat) reduces food consumption related greenhouse gas emissions and the land area required but increases overseas arable land use. With this exception, the release of arable land now used to grow animal feed exceeds the additional arable land required for increased plant based foods in both the UK and overseas. Reducing livestock product consumption also has the potential to enable delivery of other significant environmental benefits, for example, reductions in ammonia and nitrate emissions. A 50% reduction in livestock product consumption reduces UK grassland needs for UK food production by several million hectares. This land could be used to supply livestock products for export markets although our scenarios assume that the proportions of imports, domestic production and exports remain constant. In these circumstances, some of the grassland released could be used to produce arable crops, including crops for biofuel production. Almost all of it could be converted to woodland or managed in other ways for biodiversity and/or amenity purposes. Conversion of this land resource to woodland has significant potential to increase soil carbon storage while supplying biomass for energy. Scenario Cropped area required, kha Grassland area required, kha Total area, kha Greenhouse gas emissions, kt CO2e/ year * UK OS Total UK OS Total UK OS Total Baseline 3,388 4,458 7,846 11,228 1,944 13,172 21,018 51,693 29,001 80,694 50% reduction in livestock with land release priority: Uniform 3,123 4,131 7,254 4,161 700 4,861 12,115 36,282 29,456 65,738 Maximise non-tillable land release 3,123 4,131 7,254 2,905 700 3,605 10,859 36,246 29,451 65,697 Maximise release of tillable land 3,123 4,131 7,254 7,102 700 7,802 15,056 36,282 29,457 65,739 Red to white meat with land release priority: Uniform 3,443 4,908 8,351 3,879 486 4,365 12,716 45,812 27,575 73,387 Maximise release of non-tillable land 3,443 4,909 8,352 2,909 486 3,395 11,747 45,867 27,572 73,439 Maximise release of tillable land 3,443 4,908 8,351 6,947 486 7,433 15,784 45,878 27,575 73,453 50% reduction in white meat consumption: Uniform 3,201 3,735 6,936 11,228 1,944 13,172 20,108 49,525 28,500 78,025 * The greenhouse gas emissions do not include possible effects of land use changeSummary table. The area of land needed to supply UK food and the greenhouse gas emissions from food production under current circumstances and under the seven scenarios studied. In a reduction scenario, concentrating remaining livestock production on different land types (e.g. concentrating on intensive production on lowland farms versus extensive production on lower quality land) has little effect on greenhouse gas emissions from primary production. This indicates that there is relatively little scope to reduce emissions by restructuring production (at least restructuring in relation to land use). It is further noted that concentrating livestock production on higher quality land would cause an almost complete closure of production for UK markets on land not suited to intensive grass or arable production, with biodiversity and economic impacts (discussed further below). The risks of unintended consequences with respect to greenhouse gas emissions are relatively low given the assumptions in the scenarios, but the actuality of such change will depend on future economic, social and political drivers. The report includes detailed analyses of land use and emissions data together with extensive discussion of a wide range of effects based on literature analysis. •2. Study objectivesThis study was conducted for the UK Government's Committee on Climate Change (CCC) to examine if UK agriculture can support consumption change away from carbon- intensive food products. For the purposes of the consumption scenarios, it is assumed the relationships between imports, exports and domestic consumption remain constant for each of the commodities used by the UK food system. The following questions were addressed: 1. Land needs: Given land quality considerations (e.g. land capability and constraints), to what extent is it possible to support a change in the UK consumption of meat and dairy products with a corresponding increase in substitute goods from UK agricultural land? Can a reduction in meat and dairy product consumption release land for other purposes? To what use would this freed-up land be suitable (e.g. food production, biomass production, carbon sequestration, other ecosystem service provision, forestry, etc.)? 2. Greenhouse gas emissions: What are the implications of the transition in production for GHGs both in the UK and abroad (including soil carbon releases, sequestration, reduced production of feed, etc, as well as reductions in direct N2O and CH4 emissions? 3. Other effects: What are the other implications, including for water, other pollutants, farm incomes, availability of manure as a fertiliser input, public health, ecosystem services, biodiversity, and animal welfare? 4. International implications: If UK agricultural land cannot support consumption changes, what are the international implications in terms of agricultural production and land-use displacement (e.g. deforestation, land for biofuels, land for food), and GHGs?•3. MethodsWe developed and used a combination of consumption and production scenarios to examine potential consequences of change. Life-cycle assessment (mainly life cycle inventory analysis) was applied to these scenarios to examine the overall effects of the consumption change on GHG and other emissions from primary production, in the UK and overseas. The production under the various scenarios was allocated to agricultural land resources by a combination of survey-based data analysis and model-derived calculations. Land use change (LUC) emissions (from changing soil C and biomass stocks) were calculated from data in the UK national inventory as well as from the UK Renewable Fuel Agency for overseas land types. Commodity flows as affected by consumption were calculated from FAOSTAT and Defra data. The resulting emissions were allocated to the various inventories in which they are registered, e.g. the UK's GHG inventories for agriculture, LUC, energy use and industry, together with those from overseas that are made up by components from our UK consumption of food and drink. Scientific literature relevant to the wider assessment of these scenarios was analysed (and an ecosystems services method was applied) to enable a qualitative assessment to complement the quantitative analysis. ScenariosWe designed a range of consumption and production scenarios to examine options on both the demand and supply sides. These comprise three consumption and three production scenarios. The consumption scenarios are as follows: Consumption Scenario 1. A 50% reduction in livestock product consumption balanced by increases in plant commodities. Consumption Scenario 2. A shift from red meat (beef and lamb) to white meat (pork and poultry). Red meat consumption is reduced by 75%. Consumption Scenario 3. A 50% reduction in white meat consumption balanced by increases in plant commodities. It must be stressed that the nature of scenarios is such that they contain a variety of assumptions about possible future demands and supplies of agricultural commodities. The scenarios are not forecasts. The focus has been on the technical capacity of land and agricultural production, not on the market changes needed to enable change. It should be noted that the balance of supply from the UK and overseas is assumed to remain as it is now. The 50% reduction in livestock products was not applied uniformly across these commodities. Under the reduction scenario (Consumption scenario 1), consumption of milk and eggs is 60% of current consumption, and meat consumption is 36% of current consumption. Sugar consumption is also reduced to align with healthy eating guidelines. Reduction in consumption of livestock products is balanced by increasing plant consumption on the basis of constant food energy supplied. Fruit and vegetable consumption was increased by 50% and basic carbohydrate (e.g. cereals, potatoes) and oil rich commodities (except palm oil) by 33%. Substitution was estimated on the basis of food energy use at the commodity level using FAOSTAT data. Expert opinion was obtained in relation to the viability of consumption change under Scenario 1. This indicated that diets at the consumer level under this scenario are viable from a nutritional viewpoint. It was also noted that Consumption Scenario 1 aligns with healthy eating guidelines in other countries. The production scenarios are focused on the intensity of use of different types of land. The result is a difference in the quantity and type of land ‘released' from production from change that reduces land needs. The production scenarios are: Production Scenario 1. Uniform land release - ‘pro-rata' changes in land requirements across land types. Production Scenario 2. Maximise release of tillable land - ruminant meat production concentrated on lower quality land. Production Scenario 3. Maximise release of low quality land - ruminant meat production concentrated on high quality land. The combination of consumption scenarios 1 and 2 and three production scenarios gives a total of 6 system scenarios. These are complemented by Consumption Scenario 3 giving a total of 7. •4. ResultsLand needsAll consumption change scenarios reduce the total amount of land estimated as required to support the UK food system. A switch from red to white meat increases the need for overseas arable land, although a larger area of UK land that can be tilled is released. Under a reduction scenario, the amount of extra land required for the direct consumption of plant products is less than the amount of arable land released from livestock feed production. The net effect on total overseas arable land needs is a reduction of about 311,000 ha and a net release of about 265,000 ha arable land in the UK. The need for grassland is greatly reduced. The release of grassland with some arable potential ranges between 1.6 to 3.7 million ha depending on where remaining production is concentrated. The release of grassland with no arable potential ranges from 0.7 to 6.9 million ha. Under a reduction scenario, concentrating remaining production on better quality land would almost entirely eliminate sheep and beef production for the UK from the hills, most uplands and less productive lowland areas. Under Consumption Scenario 2 (a shift from beef and sheepmeat to white meat from pigs and poultry), the diet needs of pigs and poultry result in a net increase in demand for overseas grown crops, although considerably more potentially arable land is released in the UK. More arable cropping is needed both in the UK (an additional 55,000 ha) and to a much greater extent overseas (about an additional 466,000 ha), driven largely by soy. However, the release of arable quality grassland in the UK exceeds the increase in overseas arable landed needed for producing this feed. The result is a net release of between 1.6 and 2.9million ha potentially arable land in the UK plus the release of 1.3 to 6.6 millionha of land suitable only for grassland. Under Consumption Scenario 3 (a 50% reduction in white meat consumption balanced by an increase in plant products) the changes are much less complex with no changes in grassland needs. Increases in demand for arable land for direct human consumption amounted to about 154,000 and 172,000 ha (domestic and overseas respectively), but these are more than compensated for by the release of arable land from feed production (341,000 and 668,000ha domestic and overseas respectively). Focusing a reduced cattle and sheep industry on non- arable land would result in the release of substantially more tillable land (currently grassland). In a 50% livestock production consumption reduction scenario, maximising the use of lower grade land (semi-natural grassland, hill land etc.) releases 3.7 million of tillable grassland (including 1.3million ha of good arable land). The opposite approach of withdrawing production from less capable land releases just 1.7 millionha of potentially arable land, with almost no release of the grassland well suited for to arable production. The land-use trade-off is therefore clear. Under a 50% livestock consumption reduction scenario, 2 million ha of tillable grassland is required to compensate for the withdrawal of cattle and sheep production from 6.9 million ha of non-tillable grassland. A 50% reduction in livestock product consumption opens up the opportunity to release about half of UK land currently used for UK food supplies if remaining production is concentrated on the more capable land. If land is released uniformly, almost two-thirds of this release takes place on grassland not suited to arable production and the remaining third is grassland with some arable potential. There would be with higher levels of land release in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland than in England. Depending on where the remaining production takes place, a large proportion of land released may be very unproductive, but it can be assumed that about 5 million ha with potential for other agricultural uses would be available, for example for the production of livestock for export (if they did not reduce their livestock consumption), for producing arable biofuel crops, planted woodland and re-wilding (to natural woodland in many cases). Greenhouse gas emissionsAll consumption scenarios reduce greenhouse gas emissions from primary production. The largest reduction is from a livestock reduction scenario (Consumption Scenario 1): from 81 to 66MtCO2e (19% reduction). The switch from red to white meat reduces emissions by 9% and a 50% reduction in white meat consumption by only 3%. The net effect on emissions depends greatly on the alternative use of the grassland released from food production. The study indicates the range of possible consequences on soil and biomass fluxes. If all tillable grassland released from food production was converted to arable use, 8 to 17MtCO2e per year would be released over 20 years through the effects of land use change. Converting all released land with the potential to support good tree growth to woodland would cause a net carbon uptake equivalent to about 7.5 to 9.5MtCO2e per year in soil and wood per year over 20 years. Land use preference (e.g. focusing remaining production on high quality land) has little effect on emissions. This is an important result indicating that supply chain emissions are unresponsive to changes in industry structure with respect to the land used. The location of emissions reductions (UK or overseas) was identified. Currently, we estimate that 36% of primary production emissions are overseas. All scenarios reduce UK emissions while Consumption Scenario 1 has little effect on overseas emissions and Consumption Scenario 2 reduces overseas emissions by 5%. None of the scenarios involve a net export of emissions and the GHG reduction benefits in the UK are proportionally greater than those overseas because of the tight link between UK livestock consumption and production. OTHER EFFECTS Other emissions All consumption scenarios are expected to reduce other emissions. Consumption Scenario 1 halves ammonia emissions. Reductions in nitrate emissions, eutrophication emissions generally, and acidification are almost as large (ca 45%). Biodiversity and carbon sequestration It is widely asserted that grassland, especially semi- natural grassland, has a higher biodiversity value compared with other types of vegetation, natural climax vegetation for example. It is often claimed that the retention of these grasslands is important for the continued delivery of some ecosystem services, for example, carbon sequestration. In many other European countries, the uplands and hills are usually wooded. For example, 32% and 29% of the land area in Germany and France respectively are wooded compared with 12% in the UK. Thus conversion to climax woodland or other forms of forestry is one obvious alternative use for released grassland. Our study has identified benefits for carbon sequestration in soil when grassland is converted to woodland (there should also be potential benefits in the use of harvested wood). Our analysis of land use statistics reveals the large proportion of UK land currently occupied by cattle and sheep. Without these livestock, this grassland (much of which is semi-natural grassland) would revert to the natural vegetation - deciduous woodland in many cases. Our results show that the use of livestock to retain semi-natural grasslands is not dependent on the current high level of livestock product consumption. A 50% reduction in demand still leaves a market which is large enough to support this activity. However, given how a declining market affects all suppliers, a livestock reduction scenario presents special challenges to the maintenance of semi-natural grasslands. Livestock systems provide a wide range of services that are currently used by society. In a reduction scenario, rural areas lose skills and employment in the livestock sector and there would be ramifications for linked industries such as the meat processing or veterinary sectors. Culturally important features, for example, hedgerows and stone walls, and much of the fauna and flora associated with grassland would be no longer needed. In the UK as a whole, land that is most likely to be taken out of production is associated with difficult production conditions. In England, upland moorland and common land now in a semi-natural state could change to fully natural vegetation cover. In upland areas, where the majority of re-wilding under Consumption Scenario 1 and 2 would be located, evidence suggests that various natural communities including scrub, bracken, bramble, and woodland with their own assemblage of flora and fauna are likely to develop, with potential increases in wild herbivores such as deer, hares, and rabbits. The majority of SSSIs currently under-grazed occur in lowland areas, for example in southern and eastern parts of England, and a lack of livestock results in difficulty in applying the grazing pressure required to maintain the semi-natural faunal and floral diversity. Recreational access to the uplands, which is now facilitated by open grassland landscapes, may be impaired and evidence suggests that visitors view the loss of traditional semi-natural landscapes, with associated meadows, hedges, and stone walls, negatively. Whilst a reduction in the current ecosystem service provision associated with livestock production from cattle and sheep can be expected under Consumption Scenarios 1 and 2, the net change is also dependent on the alternative use to which land is put. In upland SSSIs, overgrazing is often problematic and reducing grazing pressure may allow semi-natural habitats to recover, in particular dwarf shrub heaths, bogs, acid grassland and upland habitats. The release of large areas of land could also be used to diversify upland areas. For example, semi-natural upland woodlands have declined by 30-40% since the 1950s and the UK Habitat Action Plan has therefore included a target to increase the area of upland oak woodland through planting or natural regeneration of current open ground. In the lowlands, approximately 10% of the current arable land could be released for other activities, such as bioenergy crops, woodlands, recreational land, wetland creation, nature reserves, flood protection, carbon sequestration, and urban development. Each of these land uses will have its own specific range and flow of ecosystem services associated with it. While in general, the release of agricultural land with high environmental value from food production is not viewed as positive, Defra has concluded that there are likely to be situations where positive outcomes can occur. Economic considerations The reduction in the amount of land needed to supply the UK goes hand-in-hand with a reduction in the value added by agriculture supplying UK consumed food. A 50% reduction in livestock product consumption (Consumption Scenario 1) reduces the UK farm-gate value of livestock products from £7.6 to 3.5 billion. The farm-level economic impact of a change along these lines will depend crucially on what replacement output is found for the land released and on market effects that are beyond the scope of this study. One economic response scenario is that the land resource released remains in agriculture serving export markets. Another strategy is to use the land for non-food purposes. Using biomass energy cropping as a benchmark and assuming a price of £40/tonne dry matter biomass wood, we estimate that replacing the value of the food output of higher quality land released will be challenging, although it is reported that biomass energy is an economically viable alternative to sheep production on uplands.[1] Potential unexpected or unintended consequences Changes to UK crop production The general conclusion that a reduction in livestock production consumption will have little effect in total arable land requirements masks some important regional effects. This scenario will reduce arable crop production for livestock feed and increase arable production for direct human consumption, including a 50% increase in fruit and vegetables. The increase of 0.6 million ha of UK crops for human consumption includes an increase of about 0.2 million ha in potatoes, field vegetables and fruit. Research indicates that agricultural change driven by healthy eating recommendations will result in expansion of production of these crops particularly in the south and east of England.[2] Many of these crops are irrigated and some are protected using for example poly-tunnels. Whilst the change in land use is small in absolute terms, the local effects on water resources and landscape could be significant. It should be noted however that the increase in fresh fruit and vegetable consumption in these scenarios arise from the full implementation of current UK healthy eating guidelines (‘five-a- day') and are not just a consequence reduced livestock product consumption. Potential unexpected or unintended consequencesUneven distribution of economic effects The effect of a contraction in the value of farm output for UK markets will be unevenly distributed. There will be many losers, but also some winners. Given regional land quality characteristics, almost all Welsh, Scottish and Northern Irish farmers would be affected by output contraction counterbalanced by output growth in the south and east of England. Effects on overseas land use The reduction in livestock product consumption will have little effect overall on net overseas land needs. Release of land in South America and the USA used for animal feed, especially soy, will be counter-balanced by increases in a wide range of crops elsewhere. The consumption changes also reduce the need for overseas grassland. This affects three countries in particular: Ireland (dairy products, beef), New Zealand (butter and lamb), and South America (beef). The effect on Brazil is now small as imports have dwindled in recent years but the change would close off the UK as a growth market for Brazilian beef in the longer term. The effects on Ireland are particularly significant. •5. ConclusionThis study has clearly shown that UK land can support consumption change that reduces greenhouse gas emissions from the food system. The reduction in land needed to supply the UK that comes with a reduction in livestock product consumption brings potential environmental benefits and significant opportunities to deliver other products, including other ecosystem services, from UK agricultural land. The study has shown that some risks currently argued as arising from consumption change are small. In particular the study shows that arable land needs will not increase if the consumption of livestock products is decreased. The risk that emissions will be exported is also shown to be small. The identification of the significant potential benefits of consumption change combined with the low risks of unintended consequences has far-reaching implications for guidance to consumers and the development of agricultural policy. The results are broadly applicable to other European countries which means they are relevant to international policy development, for example the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy. [1] Heaton, R.J., Randerson, P.F., Slater, F.M. 1999. The economics of growing short rotation coppice in the uplands of mid-Wales and an economic comparison with sheep production. Biomass and Bioenergy 17: 59-71. [2] Jones, P.J. and Tranter, R.B. 2007. Modelling the impact of different policy scenarios on farm business management, land use and rural employment Project Document No. 13. Implications of a nutrition driven food policy for land use and the Rural Environment. Work package NoItem Open Access Implementation and calibration of the parameter-sparse Yield-SAFE model to predict production and land equivalent ratio in mixed tree and crop systems under two contrasting production situations in Europe(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2010-07-10T00:00:00Z) Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.; Palma, João H. N.; Keesman, K. J.; van der Werf, Wopke; Dupraz, Christian; van Keulen, Herman; Herzog, F.; Mayus, MartinaSilvoarable agroforestry, the integration of trees and arable crops on the same area, has the potential to offer production, ecological, and societal benefits. However, the uptake of such systems in Europe has been limited by a combination of unsupportive policies and uncertainty concerning their productivity, profitability, and environmental impact. Faced with a lack of experimental data, the parameter-sparse Yield-SAFE model offers one method for generating plausible yield data and improving understanding of production in mixed tree–crop systems under European conditions. The applicability of the model was examined by: (i) selecting two contrasting sites in France and the UK with measured agricultural, silvoarable and/or forestry data, (ii) implementing the model in a software package, and (iii) inputting data and parameters on the climate, soils, management regime, and tree and crop types. Following calibration, Yield-SAFE provided credible descriptions of measured arable and tree (Populus spp.) yields in the monoculture and silvoarable systems at the two sites. An examination of the response of the model to changes in model parameters and environmental and management data showed that silvoarable crop yields were most sensitive to variations in tree parameters. Increased soil depths increased timber yields, and increasing stand density increased stand volume whilst decreasing individual tree volume. In all the simulations, the model predicted greater efficiency in use of land, i.e. greater land equivalent ratios, when trees and crops were combined rather than grown as sole crops. These results, supported by the sparse experimental data available, indicate that agroforestry provides a method of increasing food, timber and biomass production from limited land resources in EuropItem Open Access The importance of landscape characteristics for the delivery of cultural ecosystem services(Elsevier, 2017-12-09) Ridding, Lucy E.; Redhead, John W.; Oliver, Tom H.; Schmucki, Reto; McGinlay, James; Graves, Anil R.; Morris, Joe; Bradbury, Richard B.; King, Helen; Bullock, James M.The importance of Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES) to human wellbeing is widely recognised. However, quantifying these non-material benefits is challenging and consequently they are often not assessed. Mapping approaches are increasingly being used to understand the spatial distribution of different CES and how this relates to landscape characteristics. This study uses an online Public Participation Geographic Information System (PPGIS) to elicit information on outdoor locations important to respondents in Wiltshire, a dynamic lowland landscape in southern England. We analysed these locations in a GIS with spatial datasets representing potential influential factors, including protected areas, land use, landform, and accessibility. We assess these characteristics at different spatial and visual scales for different types of cultural engagement. We find that areas that are accessible, near to urban centres, with larger views, and a high diversity of protected habitats, are important for the delivery of CES. Other characteristics including a larger area of woodland and the presence of sites of historic interest in the surrounding landscape were also influential. These findings have implications for land-use planning and the management of ecosystems, by demonstrating the benefits of high quality ecological sites near to towns. The importance of maintaining and restoring landscape features, such as woodlands, to enhance the delivery of CES were also highlighted.Item Open Access Matching Scales: The impact of ecosystem service scales on a planning and policy environment(2016-05) Holden, Anastasia; Detko, Anastasia; Corstanje, Ronald; Graves, Anil R.There is an increase in the consideration of ecosystem services (ES) within the planning, policy, and research sectors. The increase in sectors working with ES is leading to an increase in scale mismatches, where ecosystem services are being mismanaged, leading to problems. Using a combination of methods these scale issues were investigated. A systematic review of both scientific and grey literature was undertaken which analysed 112 documents and led to a survey of 72 subjects who were working with ES across different sectors, and finally 19 in-depth interviews were undertaken, in order to understand fully the scale issues, and potential solutions being used. The systematic review found that a lot of ecosystem service scientific literature was based on, or had connections with, the global issue of climate change, this was in contrast to the survey that found that both researchers and those in policy are working at a regional spatial scale or below. The in-depth interviews attributed this to many factors including the pressure to publish in high-impact journals, and applying for funding. The survey found that the different sectors are working at different scales, and where they do work at the same scale, the definition they place on that scale term is different. The survey and in-depth interviews found that funding can influence the extent of a project and funding timelines lead into the temporal scale of a project. Funding can encourage collaboration with stakeholders and between sectors in order to pool resources and expertise. Alongside clarity of terms used and expectations for the project, collaboration was also put forward as one of the methods which can alleviate scale mismatches.Item Open Access Methodological approach for the assessment of environmental effects of agroforestry at the landscape scale.(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2007-04-01T00:00:00Z) Palma, João H. N.; Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.; Keesman, K. J.; van Keulen, Herman; Mayus, Martina; Reisner, Y.; Herzog, F.Silvoarable agroforestry, the deliberate combined use of trees and arable crops on the same area of land, has been proposed in order to improve the environmental performance of agricultural systems in Europe. Based on existing models and algorithms, we developed a method to predict the environmental effects of SAF at a farm and landscape scale. The method is comprised of an assessment of soil erosion, nitrogen leaching, carbon sequestration, and landscape diversity and allowed the comparison of the environmental performance of SAF with arable systems using these four indicators.Item Open Access Modeling environmental benefits of silvoarable agroforestry in Europe.(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2007-03-01T00:00:00Z) Palma, João H. N.; Graves, Anil R.; Bunce, R. G. H.; Burgess, Paul J.; de Filippi, R.; Keesman, K. J.; van Keulen, Herman; Liagre, F.; Mayus, Martina; Moreno, G.; Reisner, Y.; Herzog, F.Increased adoption of silvoarable agroforestry (SAF) systems in Europe, by integrating trees and arable crops on the same land, could offer a range of environmental benefits compared with conventional agricultural systems. Soil erosion, nitrogen leaching, carbon sequestration and landscape biodiversity were chosen as indicators to assess a stratified random sample of 19 landscape test sites in the Mediterranean and Atlantic regions of Europe. At each site, the effect of introducing agroforestry was examined at plot-scale by simulating the growth of one of five tree species (hybrid walnut Juglans spp., wild cherry Prunus avium L., poplar Populus spp., holm oak Quercus ilex L. subsp. ilex and stone pine Pinus pinea L.) at two tree densities (50 and 113 trees ha−1) in combination with up to five crops (wheat Triticum spp., sunflower Helianthus annuus L., oilseed rape Brassica napus L., grain maize and silage maize Zea mays L.). At landscape-scale, the effect of introducing agroforestry on 10 or 50% of the agricultural area, on either the best or worst quality land, was examined. Across the 19 landscape test sites, SAF had a positive impact on the four indicators with the strongest effects when introduced on the best quality land. The computer simulations showed that SAF could significantly reduce erosion by up to 65% when combined with contouring practices at medium (>0.5 and <3 t ha−1 a−1) and high (>3 t ha−1 a−1) erosion sites. Nitrogen leaching could be reduced by up to 28% in areas where leaching is currently estimated high (>100 kg N h−1 a−1), but this was dependent on tree density. With agroforestry, predicted mean carbon sequestration through immobilization in trees, over a 60-year period, ranged from 0.1 to 3.0 t C h−1 a−1 (5–179 t C h−1) depending on tree species and location. Landscape biodiversity was increased by introducing SAF by an average factor of 2.6. The implications of this potential for environmental benefits at EuropeaItem Open Access Modelling tree density effects on provisioning ecosystem services in Europe(2018-10-20) Crous-Duran, Josep; Graves, Anil R.; Paulo, Joana A.; Mirck, Jaconette; Oliveira, Tania S.; Kay, Sonja; García de Jalón, Silvestre; Palma, João H. N.Agroforestry systems, in which trees are integrated in arable or pasture land, can be used to enable sustainable food, material, and energy production (i.e. provide provisioning ecosystem services) whilst reducing the negative environmental impacts associated with farming. However, one constraint on the uptake of agroforestry in Europe is a lack of knowledge on how specific agroforestry designs affect productivity. A process-based biophysical model, called Yield-SAFE, was used: (1) to quantify the food, material and biomass energy production of four contrasting case study systems in Europe in a common energy unit (MJ ha−1), and (2) to quantify how tree density determined the supply of provisioning ecosystem services. The Yield-SAFE model was calibrated so that simulated tree and crop growth fitted observed growth data for reference monoculture forestry, pasture, and arable systems. The modelled results showed that including trees in pasture or arable systems increased the overall accumulated energy of the system in comparison with monoculture forestry, pasture, and arable systems, but that the accumulated energy per tree was reduced as tree density increased. The greatest accumulated energy occurred in the highest tree density agroforestry system at all the case study sites. This suggests that the capture of environmental resources, such as light and water, for obtaining provisioning services is most effective in high density agroforestry systems. Further modelling should include tree canopy effects on micro-climatic and the impact this has on pasture, crop, and livestock yields, as well as the impact of tree density on the economic value and management of the different systems.Item Open Access On-farm greenhouse gas emissions associated with the cultivation of two new bioenergy crops in the UK(Elsevier, 2022-11-28) Cumplido-Marin, Laura; Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.; Williams, AdrianBefore using novel energy crops to produce bioenergy, feasibility studies should be completed to determine their effect on net greenhouse gas emissions. The current study developed a model to study the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the cultivation of two novel bioenergy crops: Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum L., using Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines. The establishment and cultivation of Sida hermaphrodita and Silphium perfoliatum were compared with an arable rotation, short rotation coppice (SRC) and Miscanthus. Under the assumptions specified in the current study, including annual fertilisation and a high root: shoot ratio for Sida, the cultivation of Sida hermaphrodita and Silphium perfoliatum resulted in a mean net emission of 3.0 Mg CO2eq ha−1y−1 and mean net sequestration of 0.6 Mg CO2eq ha−1y−1 respectively over a 16 year rotation. This compared to predicted mean net emissions of 4.2 Mg CO2eq ha−1y−1 for an arable rotation, and intermediate values for the SRC and Miscanthus crop (1.0 and 2.2 Mg CO2eq ha− 1y− 1, respectively).Item Open Access Quantifying regulating ecosystem services with increased tree densities on European farmland(MDPI, 2020-08-18) Crous-Duran, Josep; Graves, Anil R.; García de Jalón, Silvestre; Kay, Sonja; Tomé, Margarida; Burgess, Paul J.; Giannitsopoulos, Michail; Palma, João H. N.Agroforestry systems have been compared to agricultural and forestry alternatives, providing a land-use solution for additional environmental benefits while maintaining similar levels of productivity. However, there is scarce research assessing such patterns across a pan-European scale using a common methodology. This study aims to improve our understanding of the role of trees in three different regulating ecosystem services—(1) soil erosion, (2) nitrate leaching and (3) carbon sequestration—in traditional and innovative agroforestry systems in Europe through a consistent modeling approach. The systems’ assessment spans environmentally from the Mediterranean environmental region in Portugal to the Continental environmental region in Switzerland and Germany to the Atlantic environmental region in the United Kingdom. Modeled tree densities were compared in the different land-use alternatives, ranging from zero (agriculture with only crops or pasture) to forestry (only trees). The methodology included the use of a biophysical model (Yield-SAFE) where the quantification of the environmental benefits was integrated. Results show a consistent improvement of regulating ecosystem services can be expected when introducing trees in the farming landscapes in different environmental regions in Europe. For all the systems, the forestry alternatives presented the best results in terms of a decrease in soil erosion of 51% (±29), a decrease of nearly all the nitrate leaching (98% ± 1) and an increase in the carbon sequestration of up to 238 Mg C ha−1 (±140). However, these alternatives are limited in the variety of food, energy and/or materials provided. On the other hand, from an arable or pure-pasture alternative starting point, an increase in agroforestry tree density could also be associated with a decrease in soil erosion of up to 25% (±17), a decrease in nitrates leached of up to 52% (±34) and an increase in the carbon sequestered of 163 Mg C ha−1 (±128) while at the same time ensuring the same levels of biomass growth and an increase in product diversificationItem Open Access Rural community participation in sustainable management of the Niger delta forests, Nigeria(2018-03) Ezenwaka, Jasper; Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.The Niger Delta region has been well-known for its crude oil, which provides over 80% of Nigeria’s annual income and since the 1990s, it has been known for armed conflicts and hostilities. The region is generally under-developed and the environment is being degraded as people try to secure their livelihoods. This thesis aims to identify the ecosystem benefits derived from the Niger Delta environment by local communities; appraise the methods of forest management and their effectiveness to provide a steady flow of the ecosystem benefits; identify stakeholders in the use and management of forest ecosystems, and suggest methods of collaborative forest resources management. The research adopted deductive and inductive social research methods to obtain primary data and was guided by three frameworks: livelihoods, ecosystems services, and the stakeholder participation and analysis. The result showed that the rural dwellers of the Niger Delta depend almost entirely on ecosystem benefits for their survival; they have no access to crude oil but can access forest goods and services. The urban dwellers were aware of the range of provisioning, regulatory, cultural, and supporting services but rural dwellers were mainly only aware of provisioning services. The forest stakeholders were identified to comprise rural dwellers, local NGOs, academic and research institutions (classified as subjects); international agencies such as the UN (classified as key players); wood-based industries and urban dwellers (classified as crowd); and the government and oil exploration companies (classified as context setters). The existing forest management approaches included effective community traditional approaches (where they exist) and government laws and policies establishing forest reserves, which were mainly found to be ineffective. At present, the main forest management approach is top-down and initiated by government. The full cohorts of stakeholders are not working together to ensure the effective management of these resources. This thesis recommends a collaborative forest management approach, which involves identified key stakeholders.Item Open Access Silvoarable agroforestry in Europe - systems for meeting food and industry crop requirements with improved resource-use efficiency(2009-05-12T00:00:00Z) Palma, João H. N.; Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.; van der Werf, Wopke; Herzog, F.Item Open Access System identification in production ecology: from theory to agroforestry practice(2009-07-08T00:00:00Z) Keesman, K. J.; Graves, Anil R.; van der Werf, Wopke; Burgess, Paul J.This paper introduces a system identification approach to agricultural ecosystems. In particular, the identification of an agroforestry system, combining trees with crops, is subject of study. Typically, for these systems N < p, where N is the number of data points and p the number of parameters in a (process-based) model. In this paper, we follow a constrained optimization approach, in which the constraints are found from literature or are given by experts. Given the limited a priori systems knowledge and very limited data sets, after decomposition of the parameter estimation problem and after model adaptation, we were able to produce an acceptable fit to validation data from a real-world agroforestry experiment.Item Open Access Two novel energy crops: Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum L. - State of knowledge(MDPI, 2020-06-28) Cumplido-Marin, Laura; Graves, Anil R.; Burgess, Paul J.; Morhart, Christopher; Paris, Pierluigi; Jablonowski, Nicolai D.; Facciotto, Gianni; Bury, Marek; Martens, ReentCurrent global temperature increases resulting from human activity threaten many ecosystems and societies, and have led to international and national policy commitments that aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Bioenergy crops provide one means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from energy production and two novel crops that could be used for this purpose are Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby and Silphium perfoliatum L. This research examined the existing scientific literature available on both crops through a systematic review. The data were collated according to the agronomy, uses, and environmental benefits of each crop. Possible challenges were associated with high initial planting costs, low yields in low rainfall areas, and for Sida hermaphrodita, vulnerability to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. However, under appropriate environmental conditions, both crops were found to provide large yields over sustained periods of time with relatively low levels of management and could be used to produce large energy surpluses, either through direct combustion or biogas production. Other potential uses included fodder, fibre, and pharmaceutical uses. Environmental benefits included the potential for phytoremediation, and improvements to soil health, biodiversity, and pollination. The review also demonstrated that environmental benefits, such as pollination, soil health, and water quality benefits could be obtained from the use of Sida hermaphrodita and Silphium perfoliatum relative to existing bioenergy crops such as maize, whilst at the same time reducing the greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy production. Future research should examine the long-term implications of using Sida hermaphrodita and Silphium perfoliatum as well as improve knowledge on how to integrate them successfully within existing farming systems and supply chains.Item Open Access Water resources managment: rural community participation at catchment level in Malawi.(Cranfield University, 2019-01) Chunga, Brighton Austin; Graves, Anil R.; Knox, Jerry W.Water resources in sub-Saharan Africa region, like other regions in the world, are heavily affected by the impacts of climate change, pollution and population growth. Water management practices recognise the need for ‘stakeholder’ participation. Participation forms part of principles of water management concepts such as Integrated Water Resources Management and Water Governance. Most governments have reformed its policies and legislation to include the participatory principle. The rationale for the principle of participation is the apparent evidence that water has a broad spectrum of users and uses which are mostly competing. Research has however shown that stakeholders, especially rural communities, are not adequately engaged. Current community engagement has mainly targeted water point’s maintenance and sanitation. Little is known on the failure of engaging rural communities in managing water resources in the catchments. This research used a qualitative case study to explore rural community engagement in water resources management at the catchment level. Fieldwork was conducted in three catchments: Linthipe, South Rukuru and South West Lakeshore in Malawi. It confirmed the reports that rural communities are not engaged as expected. It found out that one of the main reasons for non-participation is the poor engagement mechanism. It identified several factors (24 barriers) which limit the participation of rural communities. It also found that a cause-effect relationship exists between the factors. The research argues that such detailed analysis of cause-effect of the factors provides several options to policymakers and practitioners in addressing challenges affecting engagement in water resources management. Further, the research proposed the framework which would improve existing engagement mechanisms for rural communities in Malawi. The framework will also help implement catchment management activities for the newly established National Water Resources Authority.