Browsing by Author "Carter, Richard C."
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Item Open Access An assessment of microbiological water quality of six water source categories in north-east Uganda(Iwa Publishing, 2010-12-31T00:00:00Z) Parker, Alison; Youlten, R.; Dillon, M.; Nussbaumer, T.; Carter, Richard C.; Tyrrel, Sean F.; Webster, JamesTarget 7C of the Millennium Development Goals is to "halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation". However, the corresponding indicator measures the "proportion of population using an improved drinking water source". This raises the question of whether "safe" and "improved" can be used interchangeably. This paper tests this hypothesis by comparing microbiological water quality in 346 different water sources across the District of Amuria in Uganda to each other and to defined standards, including the WHO drinking water standard of zero TTC per 100ml, and the Ugandan national standard of 50TTC per 100ml. The water sources were grouped into six different categories: boreholes, protected springs, covered hand dug wells, open hand dug wells, open water and roofwater harvesting. The paper concludes that the ranking from the highest to the lowest microbiological quality water was: boreholes, protected springs and roofwater harvesting, open and covered hand dug wells, open water. It also concludes that sanitary surveys cannot be used to predict water quality precisely; however they are an essential component of the monitoring of safe water supplies.Item Open Access Better safe than sorry: towards appropriate water safety plans for urban self supply systems(Cranfield University, 2009-11) Kilanko-Oluwasanya, Grace Olutope; Carter, Richard C.; Smith, Jennifer A.Self Supply Systems (SSS) can be defined as privately owned household level water sources. The research focus is on urban self supply hand dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria. Self supply wells serve an estimated 45% of Abeokuta’s population. SSS can be gradually upgraded to improve water quality, but water quality can also be improved through effective risk management. The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a risk management tool known as Water Safety Plans (WSP), but the tool has not been tried for SSS. This research focuses on the relevance of the generic WHO water safety plans tool to SSS, with the aim to develop an appropriate water safety framework for self supply sources to ensure acceptable household water. Water from self supply wells is used for both ingestion and non-ingestion household activities. The water quality of the sources is poor and not safe for consumption with faecal coliform counts in excess of 100 cfu/100 ml of water. Self supply wells in Abeokuta are plagued by four main water safety threats; style of source operation – primarily through bucket and rope -, construction problems, proximity to sources of contamination, and user’s hygiene practices. Users are in denial of the health consequences of unsafe water. There is a predominantly reactive attitude to water safety management. The main source management approaches include access and hygiene management. To appropriate existing WSP to SSS, source and water safety control measures require user acceptability to be sustainable in terms of adoption and compliance. Incentives are needed for the adoption of SSS water safety plans. A two- phase supporting program is necessary: awareness and enlightenment campaigns and relevant training activities. Water safety development for self supply wells need to be initiated and coordinated by an established institution other than the source owners. This research suggests the Department of Public Health as the institution to facilitate the development of water safety plans for SSS in Abeokuta, Nigeria.Item Open Access Climate change, population trends and groundwater in Africa(Intl Assn of Hydrological Sciences Press, 2009-12-31T00:00:00Z) Carter, Richard C.; Parker, AlisonGlobal climate change is affecting Africa, as it is every other continent and region of the world. The absolute poverty of a large proportion of the continent's people renders them highly vulnerable to changes in climate. Mitigation of climate change is a global imperative. However, numerous other changes continue apace, notably population growth, natural resource degradation, and rural-urban migration. Probably 50% or more of the continent's population rely on groundwater. This paper explores the relative impacts of changes in climate, demography and land use/cover on groundwater resources and demands. It concludes that the climate change impacts are likely to be significant, though uncertain in direction and magnitude, while the direct and indirect impacts of demographic change on both water resources and water demand are not only known with far greater certainty, but are also likely to be much larger. The combined effects of urban population growth, rising food demands and energy costs, and consequent demand for fresh water represent real cause for alarm, and these dwarf the likely impacts of climate change on groundwater resources, at least over the first half of the 21st century.Item Open Access Compilation of Work on Siting Methodology and Hydrogeological Potential of the Pounder Rig.(Cranfield University, 2001) Tindimugaya, C.; Luutu, A.; Danert, Kerstin; Carter, Richard C.This report contributes to the findings, implications, and future plans of a project, initiated by Cranfield University (Silsoe, UK) entitled “Private Sector Participation in Low Cost Water Well Drilling”.Item Open Access Contractor Drilling with Pounder II(Cranfield University, 2001-06) Danert, Kerstin; Carter, Richard C.This report contributes to the findings, implications, and future plans of a project, initiated by Cranfield University (Silsoe, UK) entitled “Private Sector Participation in Low Cost Water Well Drilling”.Item Open Access Culture's influence: towards understanding stakeholder interactions in rural water, sanitation and hygiene promotion projects(Cranfield University, Cranfield University at Silsoe, 2007-01-05T11:23:45Z) Webster, James; Carter, Richard C.Variations frequently occur between the intended and actual outcomes of rural water, sanitation and hygiene promotion projects, even projects that exhibit best practice. As a result, the intended impact of poverty reduction through sustained health improvements is diminished. This thesis establishes that inadequate consideration of culture in interactions between and within project stakeholders is a major reason for these unintended project outcomes. Aspects of individual and group behaviour that are influenced by culture are examined, and an initial conceptual framework of established cultural dimensions developed. This framework is then applied to a broad variety of stakeholder groups: seven end user groups and two implementing agencies in Ethiopia and Uganda; national Governments and international donor organisations. As a result, two new cultural dimensions are proposed. Firstly, concern for public selfimage, defined as ‘the degree to which an individual expresses interest in how others perceive him/herself, and the manner in which the individual seeks to influence that perception’. Secondly, spirituality, defined as ‘the nature and degree of people’s beliefs and practices concerning the existence, nature, and worship of, and connectedness to God, a god, gods, or a greater spiritual whole, and involvement of the divine or greater spirit in the universe and human life’. Aspects of these dimensions that need to be measured are identified. Hierarchies of cultural dimensions are identified where a certain combination of individual or group orientations causes the suppression or even reversal of behaviour in a dimension. Modifications to established cultural dimensions are recommended, especially long-term orientation which the author proposes renaming to ‘resistance to change’. A multidisciplinary approach that reflects the complexities of group behaviour and converges research findings is recommended, including utilising software that simulates complex systems. Recommendations are made for development practitioners, especially to enhance participation, promote femininity and achieve lasting change through training.Item Open Access Editorial: Setting SDG ambitions in a realistic time-scale(Practical Action Publishing, 2018-01-01) Hutchings, Paul; Carter, Richard C.Item Open Access Ensuring Sustained Beneficial outcomes for water and sanitation (WATSAN) programmes in the developing world.(Cranfield University, 2004-12) Mathew, Brian; Carter, Richard C.The two objectives of this thesis are firstly to suggest approaches to achieve sustained beneficial outcomes from WATSAN, and secondly how to ‘scale up’ application of these approaches, so that they impact positively on the lives of the millions of people who live without safe water or adequate sanitation. To discover what these approaches are the literature is examined and practical lessons are drawn from two WATSAN programmes in East and Central Africa. The conclusions are presented in the form of a charter for the sustainable development of WATSAN, with nine clauses suggested to guide project and programme managers around the issues that need to be taken into account in this most important of development sectors. The charter’s clauses walk the reader through various stages of WATSAN development, through participatory project identification, need and demand response, sustainable environmental approaches, structured health education, staffing issues, decentralisation, and the practicalities of policy, allowing work to progress at the speed that communities need to acquire ownership whilst at the same time scaling up programme implementation to make a meaningful impact on the MDGs. The global issues of financing the MDGs are also assessed, and the conclusion is that meeting the MDGs is possible in sustainable manner, but only if there is a massive shift in the resources allocated towards those really in need, and a change in the attitudes of the political power brokers to allow this, promoting quality work, to be implemented by integrated teams, in a process orientated, ethos driven way, with WATSAN set as a keystone of wider human development.Item Open Access The estimation of groundwater recharge by soil water balance in semi-arid regions(Cranfield University, 2002-08) Eilers, V. H. M.; Carter, Richard C.Quantification of groundwater recharge is a crucial prerequisite for sustainable groundwater resource management, particularly in semi-arid areas where there are large demands for groundwater supplies. This research presents an alternative approach for recharge estimation based on the soil water balance technique. The purpose is to develop a model which provides a suitable balance between physical credibility and data which realistically can be gathered. A spreadsheet model was written based on the conceptual representation of the principal physical processes which actually affect recharge in a semi-arid area. Alternative procedures were included in order to represent: (a) the estimation of runoff, (b) the inclusion of the period with predominant bare soil evaporation and (c) the accounting for evapotranspiration following rainfall on dry soil. The model was tested using real data from a semi-arid region (Northeast Nigeria) making use of selected periods of days and years in order to illustrate the principal model characteristics. The results were presented in the form of diagrams and graphs helping to visualise the interactions between the physical components and the effect of the additional procedures on recharge estimation. The credibility of the model was investigated using an alternative concept of "analysis of plausibility". This concept makes use of as wide as possible a range of quantitative and qualitative information from the hydrological system in order to verify the robustness of the model when extensive datasets required by conventional validation techniques are not available. The results suggested that the modelled recharge is physically sound and it is in line with the overall determination of recharge in semi-arid areas by a range of methods. The soil water balance model was utilised to explore important aspects of recharge in semi-arid regions showing the effect of the field variability on the model's output. The preliminary results show that the developed concept reasonably represents the inherent field variability, thus corroborating the strength of the approach for recharge estimation in semi-arid regions.Item Open Access Exploratory groundwater modelling in data-scarce environments : the shallow aquifer of River Yobe Basin, North East Nigeria(Cranfield University, 2002) Hassan, M.; Carter, Richard C.; Rushton, Kenneth R.This thesis addresses the issues of modelling a groundwater system in a data-scarce environment, the Yobe river basin, north east Nigeria. Despite significant investment in the past towards water resources developments, basic data on groundwater resources are limited. Short-term studies by Consultants contain some weaknesses and have not fully investigated the mechanisms of flow to and from the aquifer. Fieldwork studies conducted during this work and in the past (Alkali, 1995) showed that the shallow aquifer system is hydrogeologically complex. Concerns such as the relative magnitudes of recharge mechanisms to the aquifer, hydrologic conditions of the aquifer, a large change in river stage, presence of unconfined 'windows' for vertical recharge, and the fact that the region is located in a semi-arid region need to be addressed. This increased the concerns for the need to explore the system through modelling. Modeling can give insights into the whole system behaviour which other approaches cannot provide. Therefore modelling was carried out and it has provided valuable insights into the complex system. This thesis reports on the procedure of developing a groundwater model that is basic and exploratory based on limited data. Detailed conceptual model was developed using data from previous workers and from a fieldwork undertaken in this study. The conceptual model provided key hydrogeological information on the various physical processes and how they interact with the shallow Fadama alluvial aquifer. It describes the aquifer as around 10 m thick and about 4 km wide with the river partially penetrating it. The aquifer consists of areas that are confined and some that are unconfined. The river is ephemeral and its stage changes rapidly over 4 m. Recharge mechanisms to the aquifer consist of vertical recharge from rainfall and overland flooding through permeable topsoil, river to aquifer flow and 'leakage' through low permeability cover. The conceptual model was idealized and translated into a computational groundwater model using MODFLOW. The model investigated the role of each components of flow in determining the overall water balance of the system. The relationship between river stage and river coefficient in the study of river-aquifer interaction was investigated. Finally the response of the aquifer system to pumping was explored. Groundwater head output from the model was used in the calculation of the various flow components. The main findings and conclusions of the work are that: (i) a comprehensive conceptual model is fundamental in developing a numerical groundwater model; (ii) the exploratory model developed using limited data is plausible because it is hydrologically credible and fits the available data; (iii) the water balance shows that the river to aquifer flow dominates the recharge from rainfall and overland flooding. Contrary to initial belief, the largest river to aquifer flow occurs before the river reaches its peak; (iv) flows between river and aquifer are insensitive to variation of river coefficient with river stage. The limiting factor in the exchange of water between them is the hydraulic gradient and the transmissivity of the aquifer; (v) in representing the river with a constant river coefficient, the coefficient has a threshold value above which the river-aquifer interaction does not change significantly; (vi) over-pumping of the aquifer will decrease river flow to disadvantage of downstream users; (vii) the replenishment of the aquifer can be improved by pumping it at a modest rate.Item Open Access Histories of Pounder Wells and Hand-Augered Wells in Mpigi, Mukono and Jinja Districts(Cranfield University, 2001) Rwamwanja, R.; Carter, Richard C.This report contributes to the findings, implications, and future plans of a project, initiated by Cranfield University (Silsoe, UK) entitled “Private Sector Participation in Low Cost Water Well Drilling”.Item Open Access Impacts of irrigation and hydroelectric power developments on the Victoria Nile in Uganda(Cranfield University, 2009-11) Mutenyo, Isaac B.; Carter, Richard C.; Parsons, DavidThis research aimed at increasing the understanding of the water resources of the Victoria Nile basin and assessing the impact of irrigation and hydropower developments on the Victoria Nile under different rainfall regimes. A Bayesian Network constructed with the HUGIN expert researcher software version 6.9 was used as the decision tool. The Network used a mixture of data, information from previous studies and consultation with experts/stakeholders. A network consisting of 21 nodes was developed and run to determine the impacts of different development scenarios. The Victoria Nile basin in Uganda is the first recipient of the river Nile flow as it leaves Lake Victoria. In this basin, there is potential for 5 large hydroelectric power plants and the basin consists of 70% of the irrigation potential in Uganda and yet it is one of the most lacking in hydrological data in the Nile basin. Further downstream of this basin are two riparian states, Egypt and Sudan which according to the prevailing legislation on the use of the Nile share amongst themselves the entire river flow. The research shows that Irrigation and hydropower developments have modest effects on lake levels and river flows exiting the basin. Rainfall occurrence on the other hand has the largest effect on the lake levels and Victoria Nile river flow exiting the basin. It is shown that in situations of very high water demand, which occurs when annual rainfall is less than 1,200 mm, full irrigation potential is utilized and all 5 hydroelectric power plants are developed, irrigation water need is not more than 7% of the Nile flow from the basin. The effects of hydropower plants are manifested mainly in the socioeconomic impacts in their vicinity, which are found to be large and to increase with the number of plants developed. The current mode of operation of outflows from Lake Victoria which is based on an international agreement between Uganda and Egypt is a satisfactory means of control only during moderate rainfall events and lake levels. However, for extreme conditions of lake levels outside the range of 10.8-11.6 m it is inadequate under increasing demands of hydroelectric power generation.Item Open Access Mechanisms leading to post-supply water quality deterioration in rural Honduran communities(Elsevier, 2005-05-13) Trevett, Andrew F.; Carter, Richard C.; Tyrrel, Sean F.Drinking water can become contaminated following its collection from communal sources such as wells and tap stands, as well as during its storage in the home. However, the mechanisms leading to contamination between the points of supply and consumption have not been well documented. This study carried out field-based experiments in three rural Honduran communities to investigate the potential for contamination through hand contact, method used to draw water, and dirty collection containers. The possibility of bacterial growth occurring in stored water was also considered. Hand–water contact was observed frequently during the collection and drawing of drinking water. Faecal contamination was present on 44% of women's fingertips tested during normal household activities, and this faecal material was easily transferred to water. An immediate deterioration in water quality was observed on filling collection containers. Faecal material was detected on cups and beakers used for drawing stored drinking water. Evidence was produced indicating that thermotolerant coliforms remain attached to the inner surface of clay storage containers after rinsing. Drinking-water quality deteriorates during collection and storage as a result of multiple factors linked to hygiene practices and circumstances. However, hands have the greatest potential to introduce contamination because of the constant risk of contact during household water management.Item Open Access Menstrual management: a neglected aspect of hygiene interventions(Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2014-12-31T00:00:00Z) Parker, Alison H.; Smith, Jennifer A.; Verdemato, Tania; Cooke, Jeanette; Webster, James; Carter, Richard C.Purpose - Effective menstrual management is essential for the mental and physical well being of women. However, many women in low-income countries lack access to the materials and facilities required. They are thus restricted in their activities whilst menstruating thus compromising their education, income and domestic responsibilities. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach - This study describes the menstrual management challenges faced by women in an emergency situation in Uganda. Totally, 50 interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with women from villages, internally displaced person (IDP) camps and schools so that the menstrual management of the host population could be compared with the IDPs. Findings - This study showed that in IDP camps there was a significant lack of materials including soap, underpants and absorbing cloth, and facilities like latrines and bathing shelters. As a consequence women in IDP camps suffer with poor health and diminished dignity. There is also a lack of education about menstruation and reproductive health and practices are strongly influenced by cultural taboos. Originality/value - This is the first time that the menstrual management of women in IDP or refugee camps has been studied.Item Open Access Methods of enhancing the sustainability and scale of community based disaster risk management(Cranfield University, 2008-01) Venton, Paul; Davis, Ian; Carter, Richard C.Disasters are always local in their impact, and therefore approaches towards their alleviation need to be designed and implemented based on this certainty. So this research is designed to investigate methods of enhancing the development, sustainability and scale of community based disaster risk management (CBDRM). This is undertaken with a special focus upon community risk assessment (CRA) and its relationship with disaster risk reduction (DRR). Action Research (AR) is the methodological approach adopted to investigate three primary research objectives: • To investigate the link between community risk assessment (CRA) and community based disaster risk management (CBDRM). • To identify key issues when addressing the underlying causes of vulnerability within community based disaster risk management (CBDRM). • To identify challenges in enhancing the sustainability and scale of community based disaster risk management (CBDRM) through stakeholder partnership. The AR carried out has three main components: 1. The development and testing of a CRA methodology. 2. The identification of good practice CBDRM. 3. Supplementary semi-structured interviews. Perspectives on the research objectives are collated from a broad array of international experiences, but with the primary location of fieldwork in Bihar, India. Conclusions to the research demonstrate the importance of linking government policy and practice on DRR with CBDRM, and addressing the underlying causes of vulnerability. While important in their own right, these subjects have also been considered in terms of their inter-connectedness with one another. Indeed they are shown to be mutually reinforcing. However, even more pivotal is the emphasis on their relationship with CRA. Furthermore, contrary to much practice CRA, engaging government officials from the outset and incorporating an investigation into the underlying causes of vulnerability, must not be segregated from action planning but must be fully synchronised with a CBDRM process.Item Open Access Private Sector Participation in Low Cost Water Well Drilling.(Cranfield University, 2001) Rwamwanja, R.; Danert, Kerstin; Carter, Richard C.This report contributes to the findings, implications, and future plans of a project, initiated by Cranfield University (Silsoe, UK) entitled “Private Sector Participation in Low Cost Water Well Drilling”.Item Open Access River-aquifer interaction in the Middle Yobe River Basin, North East Nigeria(Cranfield University, 1995) Alkali, A. G.; Carter, Richard C.Development of the shallow alluvial groundwater of the Hadejia-Jama'are-Yobe River valley flood plain (northern Nigeria) has been taking place with increasing intensity over the past decade. However little has previously been known about the nature of the Yobe River-aquifer interaction, including the recharge mechanisms. This thesis reports on a study of the river-aquifer interaction in the middle section of the basin, centred on a field site near Gashua, Yobe State. Detailed field studies were undertaken over a period of 14-months, which involved geoelectical sounding, drilling and water level monitoring. The results of the field study show that the Yobe basin is underlain by a sand and gravel aquifer, which is covered by an average of 1-3m of clay. The Yobe River is in hydraulic continuity with the adjacent alluvial aquifer and variations in aquifer storativity have been recognised as an important factor in understanding the hydraulic behaviour of the Yobe River-alluvial groundwater system. A confinedunconfined groundwater regime exists within the present site and is an inherent characteristic of the alluvial groundwater system. The recognition of this state enables a conceptual flow model of the system to be developed. A multi-layer, spatially distributed model is proposed, in which transitions between confined and unconfined conditions can be realistically represented. A numerical model needs to be designed with these concepts in mind in order to simulate the system. The research techniques employed in the study are appropriate for the assessment of the Yobe basin system where detailed data is currently not available. The combination of detailed geophysical survey, water level monitoring and conceptual modelling has led to a good understanding of the Yobe River-alluvial aquifer interaction. It is for this reason that the techniques employed in this study can be adapted for investigating the remainder of the basin downstream of the present site.Item Open Access A single layer soil water balance model for estimating deep drainage (potential recharge): An application to cropped land in semi-arid North-east Nigeria.(Elsevier, 2007-06-15) Eilers, V. H. M.; Carter, Richard C.; Rushton, Keith R.The understanding and quantification of groundwater recharge in semi-arid areas are fundamental to sound management of water resources in such areas. A soil water balance model, if designed to adequately represent the physical processes involved, and if carried out with a short enough (daily) time step, can provide realistic estimates of deep drainage (potential recharge) over long periods. We describe a single store (single layer) mass water balance model applicable to semi-arid areas, which recognises the wetting of the near surface during rainfall, with subsequent availability of water for evaporation and transpiration in the days following rainfall. The model allows for the major hydrological processes taking place at or near the soil-vegetation surface including runoff. Model results are presented for North-east Nigeria, for a continuous period of 36 years during which mean annual rainfall was 431 mm (range 321–650 mm) and mean annual modelled deep drainage was 14 mm (range 0–95 mm, with 23 years having zero potential recharge). The modelling results indicate that annual rainfall totals are not the main predictor of annual recharge. The temporal distribution of daily rainfall and the magnitude of the antecedent (pre-season) soil moisture deficit are the strongest determinants of deep drainage at a particular location, in a particular year. Sensitivity analysis of soil and vegetation parameters suggests that deep drainage is most sensitive to water holding capacity and rooting depth. These are key parameters which determine spatial variability of potential recharge. The model is shown to be plausible by examination of the concepts which underlie it, by comparison with field soil moisture measurements, and by the model's ability to represent qualitative observations of crop yield variations from year to year. Future development of the model could include applications to other climatic conditions and the inclusion of other hydrologic processes.Item Open Access Specification and drawings for the pounder rig: a human-powered drill rig for constructing shallow small diameter wells for domestic and agricultural water supply.(2007-07-01T00:00:00Z) Ball, Peter D.; Carter, Richard C.Despite all the efforts to date to improve access to safe domestic water supply and sanitation in less developed countries, still between 1 and 3 billion people lack these essential services. The causes of this situation are complex, and are not to be resolved through technology alone. However, it is widely accepted that two broad sets of conditions (among others) need to be in place in order for the situation to improve – technologies which are affordable and manageable by user communities, and the institutional arrangements by which communities can gain access to such technologies. This document is one contribution from one project in one country (Uganda) within which an attempt is under way to address these issueItem Open Access Technology Transfer for Development: Insights from the Introduction of Low Cost Water Well Drilling Technology to Uganda(Cranfield University, 2003-03-17) Danert, Kerstin; Carter, Richard C.Third World development theory and practice are changing so rapidly that it is important to critically examine the fashions of today before they become history. This thesis considers the development, transfer, early adoption and sustainable use of technology, coupled with private sector participation in rural water supply provision. Improving water supplies for rural communities is one of the key challenges faced by development interventionists today. Lack of low cost, off the shelf technology for local enterprise which can provide affordable shallow wells for rural communities is one barrier to facilitating improvements. This thesis is based on research undertaken in Uganda to develop and transfer low cost water drilling technology in the context of decentralisation and privatisation policies. An extensive range of literature has been drawn together into 16 principles which guide technology transfer and development intervention. These principles are reexamined in the light of analysis of first hand experiences of undertaking a technology transfer project and interviews with stakeholders regarding their attitudes and perceptions. The research found that technology transfer is a cross-disciplinary and cross cultural process in which the linkages between the technology, context, individuals, organisations and beneficiaries need to be firmly established. Ugandan business and local Government culture plays a major role in facilitating successful technology uptake. Dealing with the risks associated with low cost groundwater technology is fundamental for its wider adoption. The process of technology transfer is important, particularly as high levels of stakeholder participation may compromise the delivery of outputs, at least in the short term. In terms of future challenges, this thesis shows that, culture, governance and equity need to be closely examined in relation to private sector participation in rural infrastructure provision. Private sector participation can conflict with community participation. How to adequately support innovation in Sub-Saharan Africa while harmonising development interventions is a challenge to the development community.