Browsing by Author "Blackburn, Kim"
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Item Open Access Acoustic Doppler Current profiler measurements near a weir with fish pass: assessing solutions to compass errors, spatial data referencing and spatial flow heterogeneity(2015-11-18) Kriechbaumer, Thomas; Blackburn, Kim; Everard, Nick; Rivas Casado, MonicaThere has been an increasing interest in the use of Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs) to characterise the hydraulic conditions near river engineering structures such as dams, fish passes and groins, as part of ecological and hydromorphological assessments. However, such ADCP applications can be limited by compass errors, obstructed view to navigation satellites, frequent loss of bottom tracking and spatially heterogeneous flow leading to erroneous water velocity measurements. This study addresses these limitations by (i) developing a heading sensor integration algorithm that corrects compass errors from magnetic interference, (ii) testing a Total Station based technique for spatial ADCP data referencing and (iii) evaluating a recently proposed data processing technique that reduces bias from spatial flow heterogeneity. The integration of these techniques on a radio control ADCP platform is illustrated downstream of a weir with fish pass on the River Severn, UK. The results show that each of the techniques can have a statistically significant effect on the estimated total water velocities and can strongly affect measures of vorticity. The obtained three-dimensional flow maps are suitable to describe the magnitude and orientation of the fish pass attraction flow in relation to competing flows and to highlight areas of increased vorticity.Item Open Access Advanced carbon/flax/epoxy composite material for vehicle applications: vibration testing, finite elements modelling, mechanical and damping characterization.(Cranfield University, 2015-05) Ampatzidis, Theofanis; Blackburn, Kim; Abhyankar, HrushikeshNowadays, research in automotive and construction industries focuses on materials that offer low density along with superior dynamic and static performance. This goal has led to increasing use of composites in general, and carbon fibre (CF) composites in particular. CF composites have been adopted widely in the space industry and motorsports. However, their high stiffness and low density leads to low damping performance, which is responsible for increased levels of noise and reduction in service life. On the other hand, natural fibres (NF) like flax fibres (FF) are capable of delivering a much better damping performance. A hybrid composite comprising of FF and CF can potentially deliver both on strength and higher damping performance. In this study the mechanical and damping properties of CF, FF and their hybrid composites were examined. Composites' anisotropic nature affects their response to vibrations and so traditional damping experimental setups used for metals had to be ruled out. A damping set up based on Centre Impedance Method (CIM) was adopted for the purpose of this study which was based on an ISO standard originally developed for glass laminates. Standard tensile and flexural tests were conducted in order to characterise the performance of the hybrid composite. The experimental work was accompanied by finite elements analysis (FEA). The experimental data and FEA were used to optimize the hybrid structure layup with respect to damping and structural response.Item Open Access Chronological review of the catalytic progress of polylactic acid formation through ring opening polymerization(SCIENCEDOMAIN International, 2016-08-09) Dubey, Satya P.; Abhyankar, Hrushikesh; Marchante, Veronica; Brighton, James; Blackburn, KimThe disposal of a large amount of polymer waste is one of the major challenges of this century. Use of bio-degradable polymers obtained from sustainable sources presents a solution to this problem. Poly lactic acid (PLA), a bio-degradable polymer, can be synthesized from sustainable sources as corn, starch, sugarcane and chips. Ring opening polymerization (ROP) of Lactide (LA) monomer using metal/bimetallic catalyst (Sn, Zn or Al) is the preferred method for synthesis of PLA. However, the PLA synthesized using such catalysts may contain trace elements of the catalyst. These catalyst traces are known carcinogens and as such should be (ideally) eliminated from the process. Use of the organic catalyst instead of metallic catalysts, may be one of the prominent solutions. Organic catalysts require the higher energy of activation for the ROP reaction of LA. Such energy requirement can be achieved through the application of alternative energy during the reaction. Alternative energy sources such as LASER, Ultrasound and microwave are prominent options to implement and process the ROP of PLA. This paper is an effort to emphasize the chronological review and to establish the current state-of-the-art in the field of PLA research.Item Open Access Comparative analysis of RANS and DDES methods for aerodynamic performance predictions for high performance vehicles at low ground clearances(2023-04-21) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Brighton, JamesVarious assessments of RANS and Hybrid RANS-LES turbulence models have been conducted for automotive applications. However, their applicability for high performance vehicles which exhibit much more complex flow phenomena is not well studied yet. In this work, the predictive capabilities of RANS and DDES models are investigated through a comparative study on a high performance configuration of the DrivAer Fastback model at a low ground clearance in an open road computational domain. The results show much agreement in the general pressure distribution, except in areas of highly unsteady flow. Visualisation of the flow field depicts that the DDES simulation is able to capture a wider range of turbulent scales with a higher fidelity. Lastly, variation in the magnitude, distribution and decay of pressure losses in the wake are observed between both simulations. The presented results are used to illustrate the capabilities and limitations of these turbulence models for other academic or industrial users to make an informed decision on the turbulence model suited for their objectives.Item Open Access Dataset DrivAer hp-F: Force Measurements at Various Rear Wing Angles of Attack(Cranfield University, 2024-04-30 10:36) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Brighton, JamesDataset for the aerodynamic force measurements on the 35% scale DrivAer hp-F rear wing configuration using the moving ground facility in the 8x6 Wind Tunnel at Cranfield University. The dataset includes aerodynamic force coefficients results from the moving ground experiments on the DrivAer hp-F with rear wing angle of attack settings ranging from 0°-27.5°. The measurements have been conducted three times at each angle of attack setting for repeatability. In reference to the publication: Steven Rijns, Tom-Robin Teschner, Kim Blackburn, James Brighton; Effects of cornering conditions on the aerodynamic characteristics of a high-performance vehicle and its rear wing. Physics of Fluids 1 April 2024; 36 (4): 045119. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0204204 CAD files for the DrivAer hp-F rear wing configuration are available at: Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, James (2024). DrivAer hp-F: Spoiler & Rear Wing Configurations Geometry Pack. Cranfield Online Research Data (CORD). Dataset. https://doi.org/10.17862/cranfield.rd.25715202 'Item Open Access Dataset DrivAer hp-F: Force Measurements in Yaw Conditions(Cranfield University, 2024-04-30 10:34) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, JamesDataset for the aerodynamic force measurements conducted on the 35% scale DrivAer hp-F model at various yaw angles in the 8x6 wind Tunnel at Cranfield University. The dataset includes aerodynamic force coefficients results from measurement on the following vehicle configurations: - DrivAer hp-F standard configuration (no spoiler or rear wing) - DrivAer hp-F spoiler configuration - DrivAer hp-F rear wing configuration The measurements on the DrivAer hp-F rear wing configuration have been conducted three times for repeability. In reference to the publication: Steven Rijns, Tom-Robin Teschner, Kim Blackburn, Anderson Ramos Proenca, James Brighton; Experimental and numerical investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of high-performance vehicle configurations under yaw conditions. Physics of Fluids 1 April 2024; 36 (4): 045112. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0196979 CAD files for the DrivAer hp-F configurations are available at: Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, James (2024). DrivAer hp-F: Spoiler & Rear Wing Configurations Geometry Pack. Cranfield Online Research Data (CORD). Dataset. https://doi.org/10.17862/cranfield.rd.25715202Item Open Access Dataset DrivAer hp-F: Surface Pressure Measurements in Yaw Conditions(Cranfield University, 2024-04-30 10:42) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, JamesDataset for the surface pressure measurements conducted on the 35% scale DrivAer hp-F model at various yaw angles in the 8x6 Wind Tunnel at Cranfield University. The dataset includes the surface pressure coefficient results from measurements on the slant of the following vehicle configurations: - DrivAer hp-F standard configuration (no spoiler or rear wing) - DrivAer hp-F spoiler configuration - DrivAer hp-F rear wing configuration The measurements on the DrivAer hp-F rear wing configuration have been conducted three times for repeatability. The dataset also includes a log file of the data structure and wind tunnel conditions for each experiment. In reference to the publication: Steven Rijns, Tom-Robin Teschner, Kim Blackburn, Anderson Ramos Proenca, James Brighton; Experimental and numerical investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of high-performance vehicle configurations under yaw conditions. Physics of Fluids 1 April 2024; 36 (4): 045112. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0196979 CAD files for the DrivAer hp-F configurations are available at: Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, James (2024). DrivAer hp-F: Spoiler & Rear Wing Configurations Geometry Pack. Cranfield Online Research Data (CORD). Dataset. https://doi.org/10.17862/cranfield.rd.25715202Item Open Access Dataset DrivAer hp-F: Wake Total Pressure Measurements in Yaw Conditions(Cranfield University, 2024-04-30 10:39) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, JamesDataset for the wake total pressure measurements conducted on the 35% scale DrivAer hp-F model at various yaw angles in the 8x6 Wind Tunnel at Cranfield University. The measurements are performed on the DrivAer hp-F rear wing configuration with an angle of attack of 15°. The dataset includes the total pressure coefficient results from measurements on the P1, P2, and P3 wake planes, which are located 400 mm, 700 mm, and 1000 mm downstream of the vehicle model respectively. Additionally, the horizontal and vertical measurements positions (in mm) are provided for each wake plane. A horizontal sweep on the P3 wake plane has been conducted three times for repeatability. In reference to the publication: Steven Rijns, Tom-Robin Teschner, Kim Blackburn, Anderson Ramos Proenca, James Brighton; Experimental and numerical investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of high-performance vehicle configurations under yaw conditions. Physics of Fluids 1 April 2024; 36 (4): 045112. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0196979 CAD files for the DrivAer hp-F rear wing configuration are available at: Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, James (2024). DrivAer hp-F: Spoiler & Rear Wing Configurations Geometry Pack. Cranfield Online Research Data (CORD). Dataset. https://doi.org/10.17862/cranfield.rd.25715202Item Open Access Development of CNC prototype for the characterization of the nanoparticle release during physical manipulation of nanocomposites(Taylor & Francis, 2016-02-18) Gendre, Laura; Marchante, Veronica; Abhyankar, Hrushikesh; Blackburn, Kim; Temple, Clive; Brighton, James L.This work focuses on the release of nanoparticles from commercially used nanocomposites during machining operations. A reliable and repeatable method was developed to assess the intentionally exposure to nanoparticles, in particular during drilling. This article presents the description and validation of results obtained from a new prototype used for the measurement and monitoring of nanoparticles in a controlled environment. This methodology was compared with the methodologies applied in other studies. Also, some preliminary experiments on drilling nanocomposites are included. Size, shape and chemical composition of the released nanoparticles were investigated in order to understand their hazard potential. No significant differences were found in the amount of nanoparticles released between samples with and without nanoadditives. Also, no chemical alteration was observed between the dust generated and the bulk material. Finally, further developments of the prototype are proposed.Item Open Access DrivAer hp-F: Spoiler & Rear Wing Configurations Geometry Pack(Cranfield University, 2024-04-30 09:44) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, JamesCAD geometry files for the 35% scale high-performance DrivAer model (DrivAer hp-F). The dataset includes CAD files for the: - DrivAer hp-F vehicle body, equipped with a 41 mm front bumper splitter, a full set of large forebody strakes, and a 10° underbody multichannel diffuser. - Rear wing with a NACA 6412 profile, chord of 110 mm, and span of 420 mm. - Spoiler with a plate size of 350 x 80 mm at a 40° angle of attack - Wheels (stationary and rotating) In reference to the publications: Steven Rijns, Tom-Robin Teschner, Kim Blackburn, Anderson Ramos Proenca, James Brighton; Experimental and numerical investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of high-performance vehicle configurations under yaw conditions. Physics of Fluids 1 April 2024; 36 (4): 045112. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0196979 Steven Rijns, Tom-Robin Teschner, Kim Blackburn, James Brighton; Effects of cornering conditions on the aerodynamic characteristics of a high-performance vehicle and its rear wing. Physics of Fluids 1 April 2024; 36 (4): 045119. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0204204 This geometry pack uses components from the original DrivAer hp-F: the CAD geometry pack collection: Soares, Renan francisco; Olives, Sergio Goñalons; Knowles, Andrew Paul; Garry, Kevin; Holt, Jenny (2018). DrivAer hp-F: the CAD geometry pack. Cranfield Online Research Data (CORD). Collection. https://doi.org/10.17862/cranfield.rd.c.3969120Item Open Access Effects of cornering conditions on the aerodynamic characteristics of a high-performance vehicle and its rear wing(American Institute of Physics (AIP), 2024-04-09) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Brighton, JamesThis study investigates the aerodynamic behavior of a high-performance vehicle and the interaction with its rear wing in straight-line and steady-state cornering conditions. Analyses are performed with Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes based computational fluid dynamics simulations using a moving reference frame and overset mesh technique, validated against moving ground wind tunnel experiments. The results indicate a significant 20% decrease in downforce and 35% increase in drag compared to straight-line conditions at the smallest considered corner radius of 2.9 car-lengths. Downforce losses primarily stem from performance deficits on the underbody and rear wing, alongside elevated upper body lift. Drag penalties mainly result from additional pressure drag induced by a recirculation wake vortex generated behind the vehicle's inboard side. The vehicle's lateral pressure distribution is also affected, introducing a centripetal force that increases with smaller corner radii. Additionally, analyses of the rear wing reveal alternations of its aerodynamic characteristics in cornering, particularly impacting vortical flow and suction on the lower surface. Throughout the operating conditions, the rear wing's individual downforce contribution falls off beyond its stall angle. At higher angles of attack, the rear wing primarily generates downforce by pressurizing the vehicle's upper surfaces, but its interaction with the near-wake leads to a substantially increased pressure drag. Overall, these findings provide crucial insights into the intricate aerodynamic interactions of high-performance vehicles in diverse operating conditions as well as form an essential foundation for future research on static and active aerodynamic designs in the pursuit to optimize vehicle performance in dynamic driving conditions.Item Open Access The evaluation and calibration of pressure mapping system for the measurement of the pressure distribution of agricultural tyres(Elsevier, 2015-01-06) Misiewicz, Paula A.; Blackburn, Kim; Richards, Terence E.; Brighton, James L.; Godwin, RichardThe accuracy of a commercial pressure mapping system was evaluated and a number of techniques for the improvement of pressure measurements were developed. These were required in order to use the pressure mapping system in a tyre/surface interaction study which involved determination of the tyre contact pressure distribution on, both, hard and soil surfaces. In the evaluation of the system, the effect of sensor calibration procedures on the accuracy of the system in measuring pressure was investigated. A purpose built pressure calibration chamber was used to calibrate the sensors, which enabled the proprietary built-in calibration system to be evaluated along with a novel calibration procedure employing, both, an individual and multi-point calibration of each sensing element and the rejection of sensing elements that did not conform to the sensitivity of the majority of the sensing elements. These measures reduced the uncertainty in pressure measurements from ±30% to ±4%. Further, evaluation of the compliance of the material was also conducted to enable the sensors to be used for interface pressure measurements between two different surface materials other than those used during sensor calibration. As a result, a procedure for normalising the recorded pressure by adjusting the recorded load output to equal the applied load was established. The improvement of the accuracy of the sensors made it possible for the system to be used to determine the pressure distribution resulting from a range of tyres on a hard surface and in the soil profile.Item Open Access Experimental and numerical investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of high-performance vehicle configurations under yaw conditions(AIP Publishing, 2024-04-05) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Ramos Proenca, Anderson; Brighton, JamesThis study investigates the impact of yaw conditions on the aerodynamic performance and flow field of three high-performance vehicle model configurations by means of wind tunnel testing and unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes-based computational fluid dynamics simulations. While yaw effects on automotive vehicles have been explored, the effects on far more complex flow fields of high-performance vehicles remain insufficiently researched. This paper reveals that yaw conditions have a significant negative influence both downforce and drag performance. Spoiler and rear wing devices enhance downforce but increase the vehicle's sensitivity to yaw. Furthermore, yaw conditions significantly alter vortex structures and local flow velocities, affecting downstream flow behavior. Surface pressure measurements on the slant confirm these findings and highlight notable yaw effects and upstream effects from spoiler and rear wing devices. Wake analyses through total pressure measurements show that yaw induces a substantial deviation from straight-line wake characteristics, which become dominated by an inboard rotating vehicle body vortex. Overall, this research enhances the understanding of the effects of yaw conditions on high-performance vehicle aerodynamics and provides valuable data for future vehicle aerodynamics research in real-world operating conditions.Item Open Access Field-based measurement of hydrodynamics associated with engineered in-channel structures: the example of fish pass assessment(Cranfield University, 2016-03) Kriechbaumer, Thomas; Rivas Casado, Monica; Blackburn, Kim; Gill, A. B.The construction of fish passes has been a longstanding measure to improve river ecosystem status by ensuring the passability of weirs, dams and other in- channel structures for migratory fish. Many fish passes have a low biological effectiveness because of unsuitable hydrodynamic conditions hindering fish to rapidly detect the pass entrance. There has been a need for techniques to quantify the hydrodynamics surrounding fish pass entrances in order to identify those passes that require enhancement and to improve the design of new passes. This PhD thesis presents the development of a methodology for the rapid, spatially continuous quantification of near-pass hydrodynamics in the field. The methodology involves moving-vessel Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) measurements in order to quantify the 3-dimensional water velocity distribution around fish pass entrances. The approach presented in this thesis is novel because it integrates a set of techniques to make ADCP data robust against errors associated with the environmental conditions near engineered in-channel structures. These techniques provide solutions to (i) ADCP compass errors from magnetic interference, (ii) bias in water velocity data caused by spatial flow heterogeneity, (iii) the accurate ADCP positioning in locales with constrained line of sight to navigation satellites, and (iv) the accurate and cost-effective sensor deployment following pre-defined sampling strategies. The effectiveness and transferability of the methodology were evaluated at three fish pass sites covering conditions of low, medium and high discharge. The methodology outputs enabled a detailed quantitative characterisation of the fish pass attraction flow and its interaction with other hydrodynamic features. The outputs are suitable to formulate novel indicators of hydrodynamic fish pass attractiveness and they revealed the need to refine traditional fish pass design guidelines.Item Open Access Flow visualization and particle dispersion measurements inside an ambulance rear saloon while stationary and in motion(SAE International, 2022-04-07) Lawson, Nicholas J.; Blackburn, Kim; Sherwood, Glenn; Brighton, James; Atkinson, Helen V.The following paper presents flow field and particle dispersion data from a UK National Health Service (NHS) ambulance, under static and dynamic driving conditions and when using different ventilation modes. Data was recorded using laser sheet flow visualisation, particle image velocimetry and hot wire anemometry, from a common plane positioned about the patient centreline. Results indicated a significant influence of the ceiling fan ventilation system on gross flow field behaviour, with the ventilation fan on extract or intake mode. With either ventilation mode, flow velocities in the patient region were found to double from a quiescent condition, to around 50mm/s – 100mm/s. Particle dispersion data also showed dispersion decay rates over five times faster when using the ceiling fan extraction system. All these results were consistent when the vehicle was stationary or driving at a constant speed of 60mph. However, with the vehicle under dynamic driving conditions, such as acceleration or braking, the regular flow patterns were substantially disrupted, with bulk movement of the flow in the direction of the acceleration or braking action. Under these dynamic conditions, the magnitude of the net velocity change on the fluid exceeded any flow generated from the ceiling ventilation system.Item Open Access In-channel 3D models of riverine environments for hydromorphological characterization(MDPI, 2018-06-25) Vandrol, Jan; Rivas Casado, Monica; Blackburn, Kim; Waine, Toby W.; Leinster, Paul; Wright, RosRecent legislative approaches to improve the quality of rivers have resulted in the design and implementation of extensive and intensive monitoring programmes that are costly and time consuming. An important component of assessing the ecological status of a water body as required by the Water Framework Directive is characterising the hydromorphology. Recent advances in autonomous operation and the spatial coverage of monitoring systems enables more rapid 3D models of the river environment to be produced. This study presents a Structure from Motion (SfM) semi-autonomous based framework for the estimation of key reach hydromorphological measures such as water surface area, wetted water width, bank height, bank slope and bank-full width, using in-channel stereo-imagery. The framework relies on a stereo-camera that could be positioned on an autonomous boat. The proposed approach is demonstrated along three 40 m long reaches with differing hydromorphological characteristics. Results indicated that optimal stereo-camera settings need to be selected based on the river appearance. Results also indicated that the characteristics of the reach have an impact on the estimation of the hydromorphological measures; densely vegetated banks, presence of debris and sinuosity along the reach increased the overall error in hydromorphological measure estimation. The results obtained highlight a potential way forward towards the autonomous monitoring of freshwater ecosystemsItem Open Access Integrated numerical and experimental workflow for high-performance vehicle aerodynamics(Society of Automotive Engineers, 2024-02-06) Rijns, Steven; Teschner, Tom-Robin; Blackburn, Kim; Brighton, JamesThe high-performance and motorsport vehicle sectors are pushing the performance frontiers of aerodynamically efficient vehicles. Well-balanced use of accurate and consistent numerical simulation tools in combination with wind tunnel experiments is crucial for cost-effective aerodynamic research and development processes. Therefore, this study assesses the simulation performance of four Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) turbulence models in relation to experimental and high-fidelity delayed detached eddy simulation (DDES) data for the aerodynamic assessment of a high-performance variant of the DrivAer model (DrivAer hp-F). The influences of predominant wind tunnel conditions on the vehicle’s aerodynamic force coefficients and flow field are also investigated. Additionally, a novel CFD-based blockage correction method is introduced and applied to evaluate the accuracy of conventional blockage correction methods. Among the RANS models, the k-ω SST model exhibited notable relative accuracy in the prediction of force coefficients and demonstrated generally the best correlation with detailed DDES flow field data. The wind tunnel blockage effect caused a 9% increase in downforce and 16% increase in drag, whereas the interference effects from the overhead measurement system reduced downforce by 4% and drag by 8%. The novel CFD-based blockage correction method confirmed that conventional blockage correction methods adequately estimate the dynamic pressure in proximity of a wind tunnel model (<3%), but do not consider local effects on downforce and drag individually. Overall, the research extends beyond prior work on automotive applications, contributing to the advancement of aerodynamic research methodologies suitable for the complex flow fields of high-performance vehicles.Item Open Access An investigation into whether a BTCC racing car can be shown to emit no more carbon dioxide than its showroom equivalent(Cranfield University, 2008-09) Hannington, Lee; Blackburn, KimThe British Touring Car Championship’s emissions initiative aims to demonstrate a BTCC racing car can emit no more CO2than its showroom equivalent, (the standard road car that racing cars are based upon) for publicity purposes. This research project investigates options, which might achieve this aim, although this may not be possible. A series of initial concepts were considered and rejected. A drive-cycle option was investigated. Well-known, existing drive-cycles were considered unsuitable in the present context as unlikely to provide the desired results. In-race operating conditions data for a typical BTCC racing car was collected and analysed for drive-cycle development. Further data was collected on the specifications and performance of a BTCC racing car and its showroom equivalent. The cars’ CO2 emissions were subsequently estimated. Statistical analysis was carried out on the in-race operating conditions data. The BTCC race data commonly included operating conditions beyond the limitations of the BTCC’s dynamometer and the racing cars showroom equivalent. Under wide-open throttle operation at steady engine speeds between 5500rpm and 6000rpm, the mass of CO2emitted per second, by a BTCC racing car, is predicted to be less than that emitted by its showroom equivalent under the same conditions. However, since these engine speeds are infrequently reached during BTCC races such a comparison could be open to criticism through focussing on unrepresentative data. Further, such an emissions ‘window’, may not apply to all BTCC racing cars and their respective showroom equivalents. At corresponding points across a range of race representative engine speeds (5500-8500rpm for the racing car and 3500-6000rpm for the showroom equivalent), under wide-open throttle operation, steady engine speed emissions tests are predicted to show the BTCC racing car emitting a similar or lesser mass of CO2per kWh than its showroom equivalent. This last comparison is the recommended solution.Item Open Access Methods and procedures for automatic collection and management of data acquired from on-the-go sensors with application to on-the-go soil sensors.(Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam., 2012-02-01T00:00:00Z) Peets, Sven; Mouazen, Abdul Mounem; Blackburn, Kim; Kuang, Boyan Y.; Wiebensohn, JensSensors for on-the-go collection of data on soil and crop have become essential for successful implementation of precision agriculture. This paper analyses the potentials and develops general procedures for onthe- go data acquisition of soil sensors. The methods and procedures used to manage data with respect to a farm management information system (FMIS) are described. The current data communication standard for tractors and machinery in agriculture is ISO 11783, which is rather well established and has gained market acceptance. However, there are a significant number of non-ISO 11783 compliant sensors in practice. Thus, two concepts are proposed. The first concept is on-the-go data collection based on ISO 11783, which mostly covers data on parameters related to tractor and machine performance, e.g. speed, draught, fuel consumption, etc. Process data from sensors with Control Area Network (CAN) interfaces is converted into ISO 11783 XML and then imported into relational database at FMIS using RelaXML tool. There is also the export function from database to task controller (TC) to provide task management, as described in ISO 11783:10. The second concept is on- the-go data collection with non-ISO 11783 sensors. This data is likely to be recorded in many formats, which require an import service. An import service is based on local or public sharing or semantic mapping outputting a common format for FMIS (e.g. AgroXML). Import is best performed as close to the generation of sensor data as possible to maximise the availability of metadata. A case study of sensor based variable rate fertilisation (VRF) has been undertaken focussing on German fertilisation rules.Item Open Access Modelling and validation of synthesis of poly lactic acid using an alternative energy source through a continuous reactive extrusion process(MDPI, 2016-04-22) Dubey, Satya P.; Abhyankar, Hrushikesh; Marchante, Veronica; Brighton, James L.; Blackburn, Kim; Temple, Clive; Bergmann, Björn; Trinh, Giang; David, ChantalPLA is one of the most promising bio-compostable and bio-degradable thermoplastic polymers made from renewable sources. PLA is generally produced by ring opening polymerization (ROP) of lactide using the metallic/bimetallic catalyst (Sn, Zn, and Al) or other organic catalysts in a suitable solvent. In this work, reactive extrusion experiments using stannous octoate Sn(Oct)2 and tri-phenyl phosphine (PPh)3 were considered to perform ROP of lactide. Ultrasound energy source was used for activating and/or boosting the polymerization as an alternative energy (AE) source. Ludovic® software, designed for simulation of the extrusion process, had to be modified in order to simulate the reactive extrusion of lactide and for the application of an AE source in an extruder. A mathematical model for the ROP of lactide reaction was developed to estimate the kinetics of the polymerization process. The isothermal curves generated through this model were then used by Ludovic software to simulate the “reactive” extrusion process of ROP of lactide. Results from the experiments and simulations were compared to validate the simulation methodology. It was observed that the application of an AE source boosts the polymerization of lactide monomers. However, it was also observed that the predicted residence time was shorter than the experimental one. There is potentially a case for reducing the residence time distribution (RTD) in Ludovic® due to the ‘liquid’ monomer flow in the extruder. Although this change in parameters resulted in validation of the simulation, it was concluded that further research is needed to validate this assumption.